Research progress on calcification mechanism and anti-calcification strategies of vascular grafts_Journal of Biomedical Engineering

Authors：

SU Xiaomeng , QIU Fanshan , WANG Han ,  HAN Qianqian

Institute for Medical Devices Control, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control, Beijing 102629, P. R. China;

Corresponding?author：

Keywords：

Artificial blood vessels; Anti-calcification modification; Biological materials

DOI：

10.7507/1001-5515.202501042

Video：

Export PDF Favorites Scan Get Citation

Abstract Full text Figures/Tables Video References Cited by

Artificial blood vessels are commonly applied in the treatment and reconstruction surgeries of cardiovascular diseases, which have a considerable clinical demand. Using a 6 mm diameter as a threshold, they are categorized into large- and small-diameter types. Calcification is one of the factors affecting whether artificial blood vessels can successfully be transplanted and function. The occurrence of calcification after implantation may lead to graft failure, particularly compromising the long-term patency of small-diameter grafts. Therefore, focusing on the research of calcification mechanisms and anti-calcification strategies for artificial blood vessels is of great importance. In this paper, we summarized the possible calcification mechanisms of artificial vessels and methods to prevent or delay post-implantation calcification, with the aim of providing insights for future research on anti-calcification artificial vessels.

1.	Koch S E, De Kort B J, Holshuijsen N, et al. Animal studies for the evaluation of in situ tissue-engineered vascular grafts — a systematic review, evidence map, and meta-analysis. NPJ Regener Med, 2022, 7(1): 17.
2.	Wei Y, Wang F, Guo Z, et al. Tissue-engineered vascular grafts and regeneration mechanisms. J Mol Cell Cardiol, 2022, 165: 40-53.
3.	Schoen F J, Levy R J. Calcification of tissue heart valve substitutes: Progress toward understanding and prevention. Ann Thorac Surg, 2005, 79(3): 1072-1080.
4.	蔡軼軒, 張惠鋒. 生物瓣膜材料抗鈣化處理的研究進展. 中華小兒外科雜志, 2022, 43(8): 753-759.
5.	Zheng C, Yang L, Wang Y. Recent progress in functional modification and crosslinking of bioprosthetic heart valves. Regen Biomater, 2023, 11: rbad098.
6.	Sánchez D M, Gaitán D M, León A F, et al. Fixation of vascular grafts with increased glutaraldehyde concentration enhances mechanical properties without increasing calcification. Asaio J, 2007, 53(3): 257-262.
7.	Chen J, Ma C, Li J, et al. Collagen-mediated cardiovascular calcification. Int J Biol Macromol, 2025, 301: 140225.
8.	Zhao Y, Sun Z, Li L, et al. Role of collagen in vascular calcification. J Cardiovasc Pharm, 2022, 80(6): 769-778.
9.	Meng Z X, Li H F, Sun Z Z, et al. Fabrication of mineralized electrospun PLGA and PLGA/gelatin nanofibers and their potential in bone tissue engineering. Mater Sci Eng C, 2013, 33(2): 699-706.
10.	Fang Z, Xiao Y, Geng X, et al. Fabrication of heparinized small diameter TPU/PCL bi-layered artificial blood vessels and in vivo assessment in a rabbit carotid artery replacement model. Biomater Adv, 2022, 133: 112628.
11.	Li Z, Giarto J, Zhang J, et al. Anti-thrombotic poly(AAm-co-NaAMPS)-xanthan hydrogel-expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE) vascular grafts with enhanced endothelialization and hemocompatibility properties. Biomater Adv, 2023, 154: 213625.
12.	Rodríguez-Soto M A, Polanía-Sandoval C A, Aragón-Rivera A M, et al. Small diameter cell-free tissue-engineered vascular grafts: biomaterials and manufacture techniques to reach suitable mechanical properties. Polymers, 2022, 14(17): 3440.
13.	Lejaya A, Bratu B, Kuntz S, et al. Calcification of synthetic vascular grafts: A systematic review. Ejves Vasc Forum, 2023, 60: 1-7.
14.	Yamamoto Y, Yamagishi M, Maeda Y, et al. Histopathologic analysis of explanted polytetrafluoroethylene-valved pulmonary conduits. Semin Thorac Cardiov, 2020, 32(4): 990-999.
15.	Watanabe T, Yuhara S, Leland J T, et al. Ectopic calcification in congenital heart surgery: A material-centric review. Pediatr Cardiol, 2024, 46(7): 1771-1789.
16.	Sameti M, Shojaee M, Saleh B M, et al. Peritoneal pre-conditioning impacts long-term vascular graft patency and remodeling. Biomater Adv, 2023, 148: 213386.
17.	Teng Y, Xu Y, Lv P, et al. Therapeutic strategies for small-diameter vascular graft calcification. Chem Eng J, 2024, 487: 150549.
18.	Lamichhane S, Anderson J A, Remund T, et al. Responses of endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, and platelets dependent on the surface topography of polytetrafluoroethylene. J Biomed Mater Res A, 2016, 104(9): 2291-2304.
19.	Brown T K, Alharbi S, Ho K J, et al. Prosthetic vascular grafts engineered to combat calcification: Progress and future directions. Biotechnol Bioeng, 2022, 120(4): 953-969.
20.	Wang A, Wang D, Wang Y, et al. Optimal treatment of tannic acid for the anti-calcification of bovine jugular veins and the underlying mechanism. Int J Artif Organs, 2023, 46(12): 644-653.
21.	Liu Y, Chen C, Lu T, et al. Free-aldehyde neutralized and oligohyaluronan loaded bovine pericardium with improved anti-calcification and endothelialization for bioprosthetic heart valves. Front Bioeng Biotechnol, 2023, 11: 1138972.
22.	Wang B, Wang X, Kenneth A, et al. Developing small-diameter vascular grafts with human amniotic membrane: long-term evaluation of transplantation outcomes in a small animal model. Biofabrication, 2023, 15(2): 025004.
23.	Jiang Z, Wu Z, Deng D, et al. Improved cytocompatibility and reduced calcification of glutaraldehyde-crosslinked bovine pericardium by modification with glutathione. Front Bioeng Biotechnol, 2022, 10: 844010.
24.	Senage T, Paul A, Le Tourneau T, et al. The role of antibody responses against glycans in bioprosthetic heart valve calcification and deterioration. Nat Med, 2022, 28(2): 283-294.
25.	Wang X, Fu H, Wu H, et al. Corilagin functionalized decellularized extracellular matrix as artificial blood vessels with improved endothelialization and anti-inflammation by reactive oxygen species scavenging. Regen Biomater, 2024, 11: rbae074.
26.	Hu M, Peng X, Shi S, et al. Dialdehyde xanthan gum and curcumin synergistically crosslinked bioprosthetic valve leaflets with anti-thrombotic, anti-inflammatory and anti-calcification properties. Carbohydr Polym, 2023, 310: 120724.
27.	Hu M, Peng X, Shi S, et al. Sulfonated, oxidized pectin-based double crosslinked bioprosthetic valve leaflets for synergistically enhancing hemocompatibility and cytocompatibility and reducing calcification. J Mater Chem B, 2022, 10(40): 8218-8234.
28.	Melder R J, Naso F, Nicotra F, et al. Preventing extrinsic mechanisms of bioprosthetic degeneration using polyphenols. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg, 2022, 63(4): ezac583.
29.	Wang L, Liang F, Shang Y, et al. Endothelium-mimicking bilayer vascular grafts with dual-releasing of NO/H2S for anti-inflammation and anticalcification. Acs Appl Mater Interfaces, 2023, 16(1): 318-331.
30.	Ding H, Hou X, Gao Z, et al. Challenges and strategies for endothelializing decellularized small‐diameter tissue‐engineered vessel grafts. Adv Healthc Mater, 2024, 13(16): e2304432.
31.	Li H, Wang Y, Sun X, et al. Steady-state behavior and endothelialization of a silk-based small-caliber scaffold in vivo transplantation. Polymers, 2019, 11(8): 1303.
32.	Zhou M, Wang Z, Li M, et al. Passivated hydrogel interface: Armor against foreign body response and inflammation in small-diameter vascular grafts. Biomaterials, 2025, 317: 123010.
33.	Wei X, Wang L, Xing Z, et al. Glutamine synthetase accelerates re-endothelialization of vascular grafts by mitigating endothelial cell dysfunction in a rat model. Biomaterials, 2025, 314: 122877.
34.	Abolfazli S, Mortazavi P, Kheirandish A, et al. Regulatory effects of curcumin on nitric oxide signaling in the cardiovascular system. Nitric Oxide, 2024, 143: 16-28.
35.	Li P, Liang F, Wang L, et al. Bilayer vascular grafts with on-demand NO and H2S release capabilities. Bioact Mater, 2024, 31: 38-52.
36.	Wang F, Qin K, Wang K, et al. Nitric oxide improves regeneration and prevents calcification in bio-hybrid vascular grafts via regulation of vascular stem/progenitor cells. Cell Rep, 2022, 39(12): 110981.
37.	Cai X, Tintut Y, Demer L L. A potential new link between inflammation and vascular calcification. J Am Heart Assoc, 2023, 12(1): e028358.
38.	Wu W, Allen R A, Wang Y. Fast-degrading elastomer enables rapid remodeling of a cell-free synthetic graft into a neoartery. Nat Med, 2012, 18(7): 1148-1153.
39.	Jia Y, Xu X, Lu H, et al. A super soft thermoplastic biodegradable elastomer with high elasticity for arterial regeneration. Biomaterials, 2025, 316: 122985.
40.	Sugiura T, Tara S, Nakayama H, et al. Fast-degrading bioresorbable arterial vascular graft with high cellular infiltration inhibits calcification of the graft. J Vasc Surg, 2017, 66(1): 243-250.
41.	Xiao Y, Cai Z, Xing Y, et al. Fabrication of small-diameter in situ tissue engineered vascular grafts with core/shell fibrous structure and a one-year evaluation via rat abdominal vessel replacement model. Biomater Adv, 2024, 165: 214018.
42.	Li H, Li D, Wang X, et al. Progress in biomaterials-enhanced vascularization by modulating physical properties. ACS Biomater Sci Eng, 2024, 11(1): 33-54.
43.	Li Y, Jin D, Fan Y, et al. Preparation and performance of random- and oriented-fiber membranes with core–shell structures via coaxial electrospinning. Front Bioeng Biotechnol, 2023, 10: 1114034.
44.	Wang Z, Cui Y, Wang J, et al. The effect of thick fibers and large pores of electrospun poly(ε-caprolactone) vascular grafts on macrophage polarization and arterial regeneration. Biomaterials, 2014, 35(22): 5700-5710.
45.	Tara S, Kurobe H, Rocco K A, et al. Well-organized neointima of large-pore poly(l-lactic acid) vascular graft coated with poly(l-lactic-co-ε-caprolactone) prevents calcific deposition compared to small-pore electrospun poly(l-lactic acid) graft in a mouse aortic implantation model. Atherosclerosis, 2014, 237(2): 684-691.
46.	Liu J, Li B, Jing H, et al. Swim bladder as a novel biomaterial for cardiovascular materials with anti‐calcification properties. Adv Healthc Mater, 2019, 9(2): e1901154.
47.	Lan X, Luo M, Li M, et al. Swim bladder-derived biomaterials: structures, compositions, properties, modifications, and biomedical applications. J Nanobiotechnology, 2024, 22(1): 186.
48.	Song P, Wu Y, Fan M, et al. Folic acid modified silver nanoparticles promote endothelialization and inhibit calcification of decellularized heart valves by immunomodulation with anti-bacteria property. Biomater Adv, 2025, 166: 214069.
49.	Fooladi S, Faramarz S, Dabiri S, et al. An efficient strategy to recellularization of a rat aorta scaffold: an optimized decellularization, detergent removal, and Apelin-13 immobilization. Biomater Res, 2022, 26(1): 46.
50.	Qi X, Jiang Z, Song M, et al. A novel crosslinking method for improving the anti-calcification ability and extracellular matrix stability in transcatheter heart valves. Front Bioeng Biotechnol, 2022, 10: 909771.
51.	Braile-Sternieri M C V B, Goissis G, Giglioti A de F, et al. In vivo evaluation of Vivere bovine pericardium valvular bioprosthesis with a new anti‐calcifying treatment. Artif Organs, 2020, 44(11): E482-E493.
52.	Rashidi F, Mohammadzadeh M, Abdolmaleki A, et al. Acellular carotid scaffold and evaluation the biological and biomechanical properties for tissue engineering. J Cardiovasc Thoracic Res, 2024, 16(1): 28-37.
53.	Adelnia H, Moonshi S S, Wu Y, et al. A bioactive disintegrable polymer nanoparticle for synergistic vascular anticalcification. ACS Nano, 2023, 17(19): 18775-18791.
54.	Bailey M, Xiao H, Ogle M, et al. Aluminum chloride pretreatment of elastin inhibits elastolysis by matrix metalloproteinases and leads to inhibition of elastin-oriented calcification. Am J Pathol, 2001, 159(6): 1981-1986.
55.	Sakaguchi Y. The emerging role of magnesium in CKD. Clin Exp Nephrol, 2022, 26(5): 379-384.
56.	Huish S, Sinha S. New therapeutic perspectives for vascular and valvular calcifications in chronic kidney disease. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens, 2024, 33(4): 391-397.
57.	Zaslow S J, Oliveira-Paula G H, Chen W. Magnesium and vascular calcification in chronic kidney disease: Current insights. Int J Mol Sci 2024, 25(2): 1155.

1. Koch S E, De Kort B J, Holshuijsen N, et al. Animal studies for the evaluation of in situ tissue-engineered vascular grafts — a systematic review, evidence map, and meta-analysis. NPJ Regener Med, 2022, 7(1): 17.
2. Wei Y, Wang F, Guo Z, et al. Tissue-engineered vascular grafts and regeneration mechanisms. J Mol Cell Cardiol, 2022, 165: 40-53.
3. Schoen F J, Levy R J. Calcification of tissue heart valve substitutes: Progress toward understanding and prevention. Ann Thorac Surg, 2005, 79(3): 1072-1080.
4. 蔡軼軒, 張惠鋒. 生物瓣膜材料抗鈣化處理的研究進展. 中華小兒外科雜志, 2022, 43(8): 753-759.
5. Zheng C, Yang L, Wang Y. Recent progress in functional modification and crosslinking of bioprosthetic heart valves. Regen Biomater, 2023, 11: rbad098.
6. Sánchez D M, Gaitán D M, León A F, et al. Fixation of vascular grafts with increased glutaraldehyde concentration enhances mechanical properties without increasing calcification. Asaio J, 2007, 53(3): 257-262.
7. Chen J, Ma C, Li J, et al. Collagen-mediated cardiovascular calcification. Int J Biol Macromol, 2025, 301: 140225.
8. Zhao Y, Sun Z, Li L, et al. Role of collagen in vascular calcification. J Cardiovasc Pharm, 2022, 80(6): 769-778.
9. Meng Z X, Li H F, Sun Z Z, et al. Fabrication of mineralized electrospun PLGA and PLGA/gelatin nanofibers and their potential in bone tissue engineering. Mater Sci Eng C, 2013, 33(2): 699-706.
10. Fang Z, Xiao Y, Geng X, et al. Fabrication of heparinized small diameter TPU/PCL bi-layered artificial blood vessels and in vivo assessment in a rabbit carotid artery replacement model. Biomater Adv, 2022, 133: 112628.
11. Li Z, Giarto J, Zhang J, et al. Anti-thrombotic poly(AAm-co-NaAMPS)-xanthan hydrogel-expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE) vascular grafts with enhanced endothelialization and hemocompatibility properties. Biomater Adv, 2023, 154: 213625.
12. Rodríguez-Soto M A, Polanía-Sandoval C A, Aragón-Rivera A M, et al. Small diameter cell-free tissue-engineered vascular grafts: biomaterials and manufacture techniques to reach suitable mechanical properties. Polymers, 2022, 14(17): 3440.
13. Lejaya A, Bratu B, Kuntz S, et al. Calcification of synthetic vascular grafts: A systematic review. Ejves Vasc Forum, 2023, 60: 1-7.
14. Yamamoto Y, Yamagishi M, Maeda Y, et al. Histopathologic analysis of explanted polytetrafluoroethylene-valved pulmonary conduits. Semin Thorac Cardiov, 2020, 32(4): 990-999.
15. Watanabe T, Yuhara S, Leland J T, et al. Ectopic calcification in congenital heart surgery: A material-centric review. Pediatr Cardiol, 2024, 46(7): 1771-1789.
16. Sameti M, Shojaee M, Saleh B M, et al. Peritoneal pre-conditioning impacts long-term vascular graft patency and remodeling. Biomater Adv, 2023, 148: 213386.
17. Teng Y, Xu Y, Lv P, et al. Therapeutic strategies for small-diameter vascular graft calcification. Chem Eng J, 2024, 487: 150549.
18. Lamichhane S, Anderson J A, Remund T, et al. Responses of endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, and platelets dependent on the surface topography of polytetrafluoroethylene. J Biomed Mater Res A, 2016, 104(9): 2291-2304.
19. Brown T K, Alharbi S, Ho K J, et al. Prosthetic vascular grafts engineered to combat calcification: Progress and future directions. Biotechnol Bioeng, 2022, 120(4): 953-969.
20. Wang A, Wang D, Wang Y, et al. Optimal treatment of tannic acid for the anti-calcification of bovine jugular veins and the underlying mechanism. Int J Artif Organs, 2023, 46(12): 644-653.
21. Liu Y, Chen C, Lu T, et al. Free-aldehyde neutralized and oligohyaluronan loaded bovine pericardium with improved anti-calcification and endothelialization for bioprosthetic heart valves. Front Bioeng Biotechnol, 2023, 11: 1138972.
22. Wang B, Wang X, Kenneth A, et al. Developing small-diameter vascular grafts with human amniotic membrane: long-term evaluation of transplantation outcomes in a small animal model. Biofabrication, 2023, 15(2): 025004.
23. Jiang Z, Wu Z, Deng D, et al. Improved cytocompatibility and reduced calcification of glutaraldehyde-crosslinked bovine pericardium by modification with glutathione. Front Bioeng Biotechnol, 2022, 10: 844010.
24. Senage T, Paul A, Le Tourneau T, et al. The role of antibody responses against glycans in bioprosthetic heart valve calcification and deterioration. Nat Med, 2022, 28(2): 283-294.
25. Wang X, Fu H, Wu H, et al. Corilagin functionalized decellularized extracellular matrix as artificial blood vessels with improved endothelialization and anti-inflammation by reactive oxygen species scavenging. Regen Biomater, 2024, 11: rbae074.
26. Hu M, Peng X, Shi S, et al. Dialdehyde xanthan gum and curcumin synergistically crosslinked bioprosthetic valve leaflets with anti-thrombotic, anti-inflammatory and anti-calcification properties. Carbohydr Polym, 2023, 310: 120724.
27. Hu M, Peng X, Shi S, et al. Sulfonated, oxidized pectin-based double crosslinked bioprosthetic valve leaflets for synergistically enhancing hemocompatibility and cytocompatibility and reducing calcification. J Mater Chem B, 2022, 10(40): 8218-8234.
28. Melder R J, Naso F, Nicotra F, et al. Preventing extrinsic mechanisms of bioprosthetic degeneration using polyphenols. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg, 2022, 63(4): ezac583.
29. Wang L, Liang F, Shang Y, et al. Endothelium-mimicking bilayer vascular grafts with dual-releasing of NO/H2S for anti-inflammation and anticalcification. Acs Appl Mater Interfaces, 2023, 16(1): 318-331.
30. Ding H, Hou X, Gao Z, et al. Challenges and strategies for endothelializing decellularized small‐diameter tissue‐engineered vessel grafts. Adv Healthc Mater, 2024, 13(16): e2304432.
31. Li H, Wang Y, Sun X, et al. Steady-state behavior and endothelialization of a silk-based small-caliber scaffold in vivo transplantation. Polymers, 2019, 11(8): 1303.
32. Zhou M, Wang Z, Li M, et al. Passivated hydrogel interface: Armor against foreign body response and inflammation in small-diameter vascular grafts. Biomaterials, 2025, 317: 123010.
33. Wei X, Wang L, Xing Z, et al. Glutamine synthetase accelerates re-endothelialization of vascular grafts by mitigating endothelial cell dysfunction in a rat model. Biomaterials, 2025, 314: 122877.
34. Abolfazli S, Mortazavi P, Kheirandish A, et al. Regulatory effects of curcumin on nitric oxide signaling in the cardiovascular system. Nitric Oxide, 2024, 143: 16-28.
35. Li P, Liang F, Wang L, et al. Bilayer vascular grafts with on-demand NO and H2S release capabilities. Bioact Mater, 2024, 31: 38-52.
36. Wang F, Qin K, Wang K, et al. Nitric oxide improves regeneration and prevents calcification in bio-hybrid vascular grafts via regulation of vascular stem/progenitor cells. Cell Rep, 2022, 39(12): 110981.
37. Cai X, Tintut Y, Demer L L. A potential new link between inflammation and vascular calcification. J Am Heart Assoc, 2023, 12(1): e028358.
38. Wu W, Allen R A, Wang Y. Fast-degrading elastomer enables rapid remodeling of a cell-free synthetic graft into a neoartery. Nat Med, 2012, 18(7): 1148-1153.
39. Jia Y, Xu X, Lu H, et al. A super soft thermoplastic biodegradable elastomer with high elasticity for arterial regeneration. Biomaterials, 2025, 316: 122985.
40. Sugiura T, Tara S, Nakayama H, et al. Fast-degrading bioresorbable arterial vascular graft with high cellular infiltration inhibits calcification of the graft. J Vasc Surg, 2017, 66(1): 243-250.
41. Xiao Y, Cai Z, Xing Y, et al. Fabrication of small-diameter in situ tissue engineered vascular grafts with core/shell fibrous structure and a one-year evaluation via rat abdominal vessel replacement model. Biomater Adv, 2024, 165: 214018.
42. Li H, Li D, Wang X, et al. Progress in biomaterials-enhanced vascularization by modulating physical properties. ACS Biomater Sci Eng, 2024, 11(1): 33-54.
43. Li Y, Jin D, Fan Y, et al. Preparation and performance of random- and oriented-fiber membranes with core–shell structures via coaxial electrospinning. Front Bioeng Biotechnol, 2023, 10: 1114034.
44. Wang Z, Cui Y, Wang J, et al. The effect of thick fibers and large pores of electrospun poly(ε-caprolactone) vascular grafts on macrophage polarization and arterial regeneration. Biomaterials, 2014, 35(22): 5700-5710.
45. Tara S, Kurobe H, Rocco K A, et al. Well-organized neointima of large-pore poly(l-lactic acid) vascular graft coated with poly(l-lactic-co-ε-caprolactone) prevents calcific deposition compared to small-pore electrospun poly(l-lactic acid) graft in a mouse aortic implantation model. Atherosclerosis, 2014, 237(2): 684-691.
46. Liu J, Li B, Jing H, et al. Swim bladder as a novel biomaterial for cardiovascular materials with anti‐calcification properties. Adv Healthc Mater, 2019, 9(2): e1901154.
47. Lan X, Luo M, Li M, et al. Swim bladder-derived biomaterials: structures, compositions, properties, modifications, and biomedical applications. J Nanobiotechnology, 2024, 22(1): 186.
48. Song P, Wu Y, Fan M, et al. Folic acid modified silver nanoparticles promote endothelialization and inhibit calcification of decellularized heart valves by immunomodulation with anti-bacteria property. Biomater Adv, 2025, 166: 214069.
49. Fooladi S, Faramarz S, Dabiri S, et al. An efficient strategy to recellularization of a rat aorta scaffold: an optimized decellularization, detergent removal, and Apelin-13 immobilization. Biomater Res, 2022, 26(1): 46.
50. Qi X, Jiang Z, Song M, et al. A novel crosslinking method for improving the anti-calcification ability and extracellular matrix stability in transcatheter heart valves. Front Bioeng Biotechnol, 2022, 10: 909771.
51. Braile-Sternieri M C V B, Goissis G, Giglioti A de F, et al. In vivo evaluation of Vivere bovine pericardium valvular bioprosthesis with a new anti‐calcifying treatment. Artif Organs, 2020, 44(11): E482-E493.
52. Rashidi F, Mohammadzadeh M, Abdolmaleki A, et al. Acellular carotid scaffold and evaluation the biological and biomechanical properties for tissue engineering. J Cardiovasc Thoracic Res, 2024, 16(1): 28-37.
53. Adelnia H, Moonshi S S, Wu Y, et al. A bioactive disintegrable polymer nanoparticle for synergistic vascular anticalcification. ACS Nano, 2023, 17(19): 18775-18791.
54. Bailey M, Xiao H, Ogle M, et al. Aluminum chloride pretreatment of elastin inhibits elastolysis by matrix metalloproteinases and leads to inhibition of elastin-oriented calcification. Am J Pathol, 2001, 159(6): 1981-1986.
55. Sakaguchi Y. The emerging role of magnesium in CKD. Clin Exp Nephrol, 2022, 26(5): 379-384.
56. Huish S, Sinha S. New therapeutic perspectives for vascular and valvular calcifications in chronic kidney disease. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens, 2024, 33(4): 391-397.
57. Zaslow S J, Oliveira-Paula G H, Chen W. Magnesium and vascular calcification in chronic kidney disease: Current insights. Int J Mol Sci 2024, 25(2): 1155.

Journal of Biomedical Engineering

Latest ArticlesResearch progress on calcification mechanism and anti-calcification strategies of vascular grafts

Abstract Full text Figures/Tables Video References Cited by

Format

Content