A comparison study on the disease burden of cancers in the elderly between China and the United States_Chinese Journal of Clinical Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery

Authors：

LI Daiping , WANG Yang ,  GE Ning

Department of Geriatrics and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, P. R. China;

Corresponding?author：

GE Ning, Email: grace7733@163.com

Keywords：

Cancer; epidemiology; age-standardized incidence rate; age-standardized mortality rate; mortality-to-incidence ratio; disease burden; the elderly

DOI：

10.7507/1007-4848.202607034

Video：

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Abstract Full text Figures/Tables Video References Cited by

Objective To compare the disease burden of cancers and the effectiveness of prevention and control strategies among elderly populations (aged ≥65 years) between China and the United States (US). Methods Using data from the GLOBOCAN 2022 database, we extracted age-standardized incidence rates (ASIR), age-standardized mortality rates (ASMR), and mortality-to-incidence ratio (M/I) for major cancer types in both countries. Joinpoint regression analysis was used to examine the temporal trends in incidence rates of the US (from 2000 to 2017) and China (from 2002 to 2017). Results Among Chinese elderly populations, the overall ASIR was 1109.4 per 100000, lower than that in the US of 1754.4 per 100000. However, the ASMR in China was 779.0 per 100000, higher than that in the US of 664.4 per 100000. The M/I were 0.70 for China and 0.38 for the US. Cancer incidence rates among the elderly in both China and the United States were showing an overall downward trend. By cancer type, China faced a relatively heavy burden from lung cancer, colorectal cancer, stomach cancer, and liver cancer. In contrast, the US demonstrated high incidence but low mortality for prostate and breast cancers, reflecting advantages in its screening and treatment systems. Conclusion The differences in the disease burden of cancers among the elderly populations between China and the US reflect a combination of factors, including the two countries’ stages of economic development, the progression of cancer spectrum shifts, and differences in the prevalence of major risk factors. It is recommended that China prioritize lung cancer, colorectal cancer, stomach cancer, and liver cancer, strengthen targeted screening and primary-care management, and establish a full-cycle system encompassing "prevention, screening, diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation" to narrow the gap in prevention and control effectiveness between China and the US.

1.	姚一菲, 孫可欣, 鄭榮壽. 《2022全球癌癥統計報告》解讀: 中國與全球對比[J]. 中國普外基礎與臨床雜志, 2024, 31(7): 769-780.Yao YF, Sun KX, Zheng RS. Interpretation and analysis of the Global Cancer Statistics Report 2022: a comparison between China and the world[J]. Chin J Bases Clin Gen Surg, 2024, 31(7): 769-780.
2.	Bray F, Laversanne M, Sung H, et al. Global cancer statistics 2022: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries[J]. CA Cancer J Clin, 2024, 74(3): 229-263.
3.	Kim HJ, Fay MP, Feuer EJ, et al. Permutation tests for joinpoint regression with applications to cancer rates[J]. Stat Med, 2000, 19(3): 335-351.
4.	Wang Y, Li X, You Z. Comparative analysis of the incidence, diagnosis and treatment of prostate cancer between China and the United States[J/OL]. Serican J Med, 2025, 2(1): 23230. DOI: 10.17161/sjm.v2i1.23230.
5.	Tan R, Hua H, Zhou S, et al. Current landscape of innovative drug development and regulatory support in China[J/OL]. Signal Transduct Target Ther, 2025, 10(1): 220. DOI: 10.1038/s41392-025-02267-y.
6.	Papapetropoulos A, Topouzis S, Alexander SPH, et al. Novel drugs approved by the EMA, the FDA, and the MHRA in 2023: a year in review[J]. Br J Pharmacol, 2024, 181(11): 1553-1575.
7.	Naci H, Shahzad M, Murphy P, et al. Costs and benefits of early access to new cancer drugs through the US Food and Drug Administration's accelerated approval pathway: retrospective observational study and economic evaluation[J/OL]. BMJ Med, 2025, 4(1): e001934. DOI: 10.1136/bmjmed-2025-001934.
8.	Chen W, Chen X, Yang M, et al. Triple-configurational magnetic robot for targeted drug delivery and sustained release[J]. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2021, 13(38): 45315-45324.
9.	Cai Y, Wang W, Jiao Q, et al. Nanotechnology for the diagnosis and treatment of liver cancer[J]. Int J Nanomedicine, 2024, 19: 13805-13821.
10.	He S, Xia C, Li H, et al. Cancer profiles in China and comparisons with the USA: a comprehensive analysis in the incidence, mortality, survival, staging, and attribution to risk factors[J]. Sci China Life Sci, 2024, 67(1): 122-131.
11.	Rivera MP, Durham DD, Long JM, et al. Receipt of recommended follow-up care after a positive lung cancer screening examination[J/OL]. JAMA Netw Open, 2022, 5(11): e2240403. DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.40403.
12.	Wu Q, Zhou L, Tang W, et al. Inter-observer consistency on subsolid nodule follow-up recommendation based on National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) guidelines in low-dose computed tomography (LDCT) lung cancer screening[J]. Quant Imaging Med Surg, 2024, 14(9): 6543-6555.
13.	Alshora S, McKee BJ, Regis SM, et al. Adherence to radiology recommendations in a clinical CT lung screening program[J]. J Am Coll Radiol, 2018, 15(2): 282-286.
14.	Fu L, Zhou Z, Shu W, et al. Hospital follow-up adherence among screen-positive lung cancer utilizing a mobile LDCT in community in Hainan, China: a prospective cohort study[J/OL]. NPJ Prim Care Respir Med, 2026. [Epub ahead of print]. DOI: 10.1038/s41533-026-00481-x.
15.	Qiu H, Cao S, Xu R. Cancer incidence, mortality, and burden in China: a time-trend analysis and comparison with the United States and United Kingdom based on the global epidemiological data released in 2020[J]. Cancer Commun (Lond), 2021, 41(10): 1037-1048.
16.	Fu R, Sun K, Wang X, et al. Survival differences between the USA and an urban population from China for all cancer types and 20 individual cancers: a population-based study[J/OL]. Lancet Reg Health West Pac, 2023, 37: 100799. DOI: 10.1016/j.lanwpc.2023.100799.
17.	An L, Zheng R, Zeng H, et al. The survival of esophageal cancer by subtype in China with comparison to the United States[J]. Int J Cancer, 2023, 152(2): 151-161.
18.	Zhu J, Du L, Li H, et al. Clinicopathological and therapeutic comparisons of esophageal cancer between China and the USA: a multicenter hospital-based study[J]. J Natl Cancer Cent, 2024, 4(4): 318-325.
19.	Tan AC, Saw SPL, Chen J, et al. Clinical and genomic features of HER2 exon 20 insertion mutations and characterization of HER2 expression by immunohistochemistry in East Asian non-small-cell lung cancer[J/OL]. JCO Precis Oncol, 2022, 6: e2200278. DOI: 10.1200/po.22.00278.
20.	Leiter A, Veluswamy RR, Wisnivesky JP. The global burden of lung cancer: current status and future trends[J]. Nat Rev Clin Oncol, 2023, 20(9): 624-639.
21.	Lam S, Baldwin DR, Devaraj A, et al. A game-changing 20 years: progress and future directions in lung cancer screening[J]. J Thorac Oncol, 2026, 21(2): 235-252.
22.	Taylor KL, Williams RM, Li T, et al. A randomized trial of telephone-based smoking cessation treatment in the lung cancer screening setting[J]. J Natl Cancer Inst, 2022, 114(10): 1410-1419.
23.	Park ER, Gareen IF, Japuntich S, et al. Primary care provider-delivered smoking cessation interventions and smoking cessation among participants in the National Lung Screening Trial[J]. JAMA Intern Med, 2015, 175(9): 1509-1516.
24.	Chen P, Liu Y, Wen Y, et al. Non-small cell lung cancer in China[J]. Cancer Commun (Lond), 2022, 42(10): 937-970.
25.	Wang X, Romero-Gutierrez CW, Kothari J, et al. Prediagnosis smoking cessation and overall survival among patients with non-small cell lung cancer[J/OL]. JAMA Netw Open, 2023, 6(5): e2311966. DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.11966.
26.	Chen Y, Huang Y, Ding X, et al. A multi-omics study of familial lung cancer: microbiome and host gene expression patterns[J/OL]. Front Immunol, 2022, 13: 827953. DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.827953.
27.	Liang X, Li X, Yao Y, et al. Lung cancer mortality trends in China from 2013 to 2021 and projections to 2030[J/OL]. Cancer Biol Med, 2026. [Epub ahead of print]. DOI: 10.20892/j.issn.2095-3941.2025.0625.
28.	McCabe MA, Mauro AJ, Schoen RE. Novel colorectal cancer screening methods-opportunities and challenges[J]. Nat Rev Clin Oncol, 2025, 22(8): 581-591.
29.	Heisser T, Sergeev D, Hoffmeister M, et al. Contributions of early detection and cancer prevention to colorectal cancer mortality reduction by screening colonoscopy: a validated modeling study[J]. Gastrointest Endosc, 2024, 100(4): 710-717. e719.
30.	Li YJ, Wang X, Wu YJ, et al. Access to colorectal cancer screening in populations in China, 2020: a coverage-focused synthesis analysis[J]. Int J Cancer, 2024, 155(3): 558-568.
31.	Yang Y, Gao Z, Huang A, et al. Epidemiology and early screening strategies for colorectal cancer in China[J]. Chin J Cancer Res, 2023, 35(6): 606-617.
32.	Zhao C, Ruan Q, Xiang B, et al. Dietary risk factors and cancer mortality burden from 1990 to 2021: a comparative study of China and global regions with varying sociodemographic development levels based on the Global Burden of Disease database[J/OL]. Front Nutr, 2025, 12: 1628792. DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2025.1628792.
33.	Li J, Wu Y, Hou J, et al. A comparative study of the global burden of prostate cancer (1990-2021): emphasis on the disparities between the United States and China[J]. Prostate, 2026, 86(4): 451-463.
34.	Chotai N, Renganathan R, Uematsu T, et al. Breast cancer screening in Asian countries: epidemiology, screening practices, outcomes, challenges, and future directions[J]. Korean J Radiol, 2025, 26(8): 743-758.
35.	Spata A, Ribeiro JM, Vigneri P, et al. Comprehensive review of pregnancy associated breast cancer: clinical features, molecular characteristics and novel therapies[J/OL]. Eur J Cancer, 2026, 235: 116230. DOI: 10.1016/j.ejca.2026.116230.
36.	Holm JB, Rosendahl AH, Borgquist S. Local biomarkers involved in the interplay between obesity and breast cancer[J/OL]. Cancers (Basel), 2021, 13(24): 6286. DOI: 10.3390/cancers13246286.
37.	Hou N, Hong S, Wang W, et al. Hormone replacement therapy and breast cancer: heterogeneous risks by race, weight, and breast density[J]. J Natl Cancer Inst, 2013, 105(18): 1365-1372.
38.	Lee CS, Moy L, Joe BN, et al. Screening for breast cancer in women age 75 years and older[J]. AJR Am J Roentgenol, 2018, 210(2): 256-263.
39.	Al Hasan SM, Bennett DL, Toriola AT. Screening programmes and breast cancer mortality: an observational study of 194 countries[J]. Bull World Health Organ, 2025, 103(8): 470-483.
40.	Schmidt M, Loibl S. Chemotherapy in older patients with early breast cancer[J/OL]. Breast, 2024, 78: 103821. DOI: 10.1016/j.breast.2024.103821.
41.	Roth S, Apte M, Balachandran VP, et al. Pancreatic cancer[J/OL]. Nat Rev Dis Primers, 2026, 12(1): 23. DOI: 10.1038/s41572-026-00699-6.
42.	Yang S, Yeoh KW, Wong MC, et al. Disparities of birth cohort effects on pancreatic cancer incidence between the United States and urban China[J/OL]. ESMO Open, 2021, 6(5): 100240. DOI: 10.1016/j.esmoop.2021.100240.
43.	Basch E, Oliver TK, Vickers A, et al. Screening for prostate cancer with prostate-specific antigen testing: American Society of Clinical Oncology provisional clinical opinion[J]. J Clin Oncol, 2012, 30(24): 3020-3025.
44.	Lai SM, Keighley J, Garimella S, et al. Variations in age-adjusted prostate cancer incidence rates by race and ethnicity after changes in prostate-specific antigen screening recommendation[J/OL]. JAMA Netw Open, 2022, 5(11): e2240657. DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.40657.
45.	Raychaudhuri R, Lin DW, Montgomery RB. Prostate cancer: a review[J]. JAMA, 2025, 333(16): 1433-1446.
46.	Teng Y, Xia C, Cao M, et al. Lung cancer burden and trends from 2000 to 2018 in China: comparison between China and the United States[J]. Chin J Cancer Res, 2023, 35(6): 618-626.
47.	Wang YQ, Li HZ, Gong WW, et al. Cancer incidence and mortality in Zhejiang Province, Southeast China, 2016: a population-based study[J]. Chin Med J (Engl), 2021, 134(16): 1959-1966.
48.	Zheng R, Zhang S, Wang S, et al. Lung cancer incidence and mortality in China: updated statistics and an overview of temporal trends from 2000 to 2016[J]. J Natl Cancer Cent, 2022, 2(3): 139-147.
49.	Guo T, Chen S, Wang Y, et al. Potential causal links of long-term air pollution with lung cancer incidence: from the perspectives of mortality and hospital admission in a large cohort study in southern China[J]. Int J Cancer, 2024, 154(2): 251-260.
50.	Chen J, Atkinson RW, Andersen ZJ, et al. Long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and risk of lung cancer: a comparative analysis of incidence and mortality in four administrative cohorts in the ELAPSE study[J/OL]. Environ Res, 2024, 263(Pt 3): 120236. DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2024.120236.
51.	Deng Y, Li Z, Zhang P, et al. Global, regional and national burden of lung cancer attributable to PM2.5 air pollution: trends from 1990 to 2021 with projections to 2045[J/OL]. J Environ Manage, 2025, 390: 126216. DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.126216.
52.	Ju W, Zheng R, Zhang S, et al. Cancer statistics in Chinese older people, 2022: current burden, time trends, and comparisons with the US, Japan, and the Republic of Korea[J]. Sci China Life Sci, 2023, 66(5): 1079-1091.
53.	Bellanger M, Lima SM, Cowppli-Bony A, et al. Effects of fertility on breast cancer incidence trends: comparing France and US[J]. Cancer Causes Control, 2021, 32(8): 903-910.
54.	Biganzoli L, Battisti NML, Wildiers H, et al. Updated recommendations regarding the management of older patients with breast cancer: a joint paper from the European Society of Breast Cancer Specialists (EUSOMA) and the International Society of Geriatric Oncology (SIOG)[J/OL]. Lancet Oncol, 2021, 22(7): e327-e340. DOI: 10.1016/s1470-2045(20)30741-5.
55.	Li C, Lei S, Xu Y, et al. Global, regional, national incidence, and mortality of breast cancer in older women: a population-based cancer registry data analysis[J]. Chin Med J (Engl), 2025, 138(22): 2917-2924.

1. 姚一菲, 孫可欣, 鄭榮壽. 《2022全球癌癥統計報告》解讀: 中國與全球對比[J]. 中國普外基礎與臨床雜志, 2024, 31(7): 769-780.Yao YF, Sun KX, Zheng RS. Interpretation and analysis of the Global Cancer Statistics Report 2022: a comparison between China and the world[J]. Chin J Bases Clin Gen Surg, 2024, 31(7): 769-780.
2. Bray F, Laversanne M, Sung H, et al. Global cancer statistics 2022: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries[J]. CA Cancer J Clin, 2024, 74(3): 229-263.
3. Kim HJ, Fay MP, Feuer EJ, et al. Permutation tests for joinpoint regression with applications to cancer rates[J]. Stat Med, 2000, 19(3): 335-351.
4. Wang Y, Li X, You Z. Comparative analysis of the incidence, diagnosis and treatment of prostate cancer between China and the United States[J/OL]. Serican J Med, 2025, 2(1): 23230. DOI: 10.17161/sjm.v2i1.23230.
5. Tan R, Hua H, Zhou S, et al. Current landscape of innovative drug development and regulatory support in China[J/OL]. Signal Transduct Target Ther, 2025, 10(1): 220. DOI: 10.1038/s41392-025-02267-y.
6. Papapetropoulos A, Topouzis S, Alexander SPH, et al. Novel drugs approved by the EMA, the FDA, and the MHRA in 2023: a year in review[J]. Br J Pharmacol, 2024, 181(11): 1553-1575.
7. Naci H, Shahzad M, Murphy P, et al. Costs and benefits of early access to new cancer drugs through the US Food and Drug Administration's accelerated approval pathway: retrospective observational study and economic evaluation[J/OL]. BMJ Med, 2025, 4(1): e001934. DOI: 10.1136/bmjmed-2025-001934.
8. Chen W, Chen X, Yang M, et al. Triple-configurational magnetic robot for targeted drug delivery and sustained release[J]. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2021, 13(38): 45315-45324.
9. Cai Y, Wang W, Jiao Q, et al. Nanotechnology for the diagnosis and treatment of liver cancer[J]. Int J Nanomedicine, 2024, 19: 13805-13821.
10. He S, Xia C, Li H, et al. Cancer profiles in China and comparisons with the USA: a comprehensive analysis in the incidence, mortality, survival, staging, and attribution to risk factors[J]. Sci China Life Sci, 2024, 67(1): 122-131.
11. Rivera MP, Durham DD, Long JM, et al. Receipt of recommended follow-up care after a positive lung cancer screening examination[J/OL]. JAMA Netw Open, 2022, 5(11): e2240403. DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.40403.
12. Wu Q, Zhou L, Tang W, et al. Inter-observer consistency on subsolid nodule follow-up recommendation based on National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) guidelines in low-dose computed tomography (LDCT) lung cancer screening[J]. Quant Imaging Med Surg, 2024, 14(9): 6543-6555.
13. Alshora S, McKee BJ, Regis SM, et al. Adherence to radiology recommendations in a clinical CT lung screening program[J]. J Am Coll Radiol, 2018, 15(2): 282-286.
14. Fu L, Zhou Z, Shu W, et al. Hospital follow-up adherence among screen-positive lung cancer utilizing a mobile LDCT in community in Hainan, China: a prospective cohort study[J/OL]. NPJ Prim Care Respir Med, 2026. [Epub ahead of print]. DOI: 10.1038/s41533-026-00481-x.
15. Qiu H, Cao S, Xu R. Cancer incidence, mortality, and burden in China: a time-trend analysis and comparison with the United States and United Kingdom based on the global epidemiological data released in 2020[J]. Cancer Commun (Lond), 2021, 41(10): 1037-1048.
16. Fu R, Sun K, Wang X, et al. Survival differences between the USA and an urban population from China for all cancer types and 20 individual cancers: a population-based study[J/OL]. Lancet Reg Health West Pac, 2023, 37: 100799. DOI: 10.1016/j.lanwpc.2023.100799.
17. An L, Zheng R, Zeng H, et al. The survival of esophageal cancer by subtype in China with comparison to the United States[J]. Int J Cancer, 2023, 152(2): 151-161.
18. Zhu J, Du L, Li H, et al. Clinicopathological and therapeutic comparisons of esophageal cancer between China and the USA: a multicenter hospital-based study[J]. J Natl Cancer Cent, 2024, 4(4): 318-325.
19. Tan AC, Saw SPL, Chen J, et al. Clinical and genomic features of HER2 exon 20 insertion mutations and characterization of HER2 expression by immunohistochemistry in East Asian non-small-cell lung cancer[J/OL]. JCO Precis Oncol, 2022, 6: e2200278. DOI: 10.1200/po.22.00278.
20. Leiter A, Veluswamy RR, Wisnivesky JP. The global burden of lung cancer: current status and future trends[J]. Nat Rev Clin Oncol, 2023, 20(9): 624-639.
21. Lam S, Baldwin DR, Devaraj A, et al. A game-changing 20 years: progress and future directions in lung cancer screening[J]. J Thorac Oncol, 2026, 21(2): 235-252.
22. Taylor KL, Williams RM, Li T, et al. A randomized trial of telephone-based smoking cessation treatment in the lung cancer screening setting[J]. J Natl Cancer Inst, 2022, 114(10): 1410-1419.
23. Park ER, Gareen IF, Japuntich S, et al. Primary care provider-delivered smoking cessation interventions and smoking cessation among participants in the National Lung Screening Trial[J]. JAMA Intern Med, 2015, 175(9): 1509-1516.
24. Chen P, Liu Y, Wen Y, et al. Non-small cell lung cancer in China[J]. Cancer Commun (Lond), 2022, 42(10): 937-970.
25. Wang X, Romero-Gutierrez CW, Kothari J, et al. Prediagnosis smoking cessation and overall survival among patients with non-small cell lung cancer[J/OL]. JAMA Netw Open, 2023, 6(5): e2311966. DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.11966.
26. Chen Y, Huang Y, Ding X, et al. A multi-omics study of familial lung cancer: microbiome and host gene expression patterns[J/OL]. Front Immunol, 2022, 13: 827953. DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.827953.
27. Liang X, Li X, Yao Y, et al. Lung cancer mortality trends in China from 2013 to 2021 and projections to 2030[J/OL]. Cancer Biol Med, 2026. [Epub ahead of print]. DOI: 10.20892/j.issn.2095-3941.2025.0625.
28. McCabe MA, Mauro AJ, Schoen RE. Novel colorectal cancer screening methods-opportunities and challenges[J]. Nat Rev Clin Oncol, 2025, 22(8): 581-591.
29. Heisser T, Sergeev D, Hoffmeister M, et al. Contributions of early detection and cancer prevention to colorectal cancer mortality reduction by screening colonoscopy: a validated modeling study[J]. Gastrointest Endosc, 2024, 100(4): 710-717. e719.
30. Li YJ, Wang X, Wu YJ, et al. Access to colorectal cancer screening in populations in China, 2020: a coverage-focused synthesis analysis[J]. Int J Cancer, 2024, 155(3): 558-568.
31. Yang Y, Gao Z, Huang A, et al. Epidemiology and early screening strategies for colorectal cancer in China[J]. Chin J Cancer Res, 2023, 35(6): 606-617.
32. Zhao C, Ruan Q, Xiang B, et al. Dietary risk factors and cancer mortality burden from 1990 to 2021: a comparative study of China and global regions with varying sociodemographic development levels based on the Global Burden of Disease database[J/OL]. Front Nutr, 2025, 12: 1628792. DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2025.1628792.
33. Li J, Wu Y, Hou J, et al. A comparative study of the global burden of prostate cancer (1990-2021): emphasis on the disparities between the United States and China[J]. Prostate, 2026, 86(4): 451-463.
34. Chotai N, Renganathan R, Uematsu T, et al. Breast cancer screening in Asian countries: epidemiology, screening practices, outcomes, challenges, and future directions[J]. Korean J Radiol, 2025, 26(8): 743-758.
35. Spata A, Ribeiro JM, Vigneri P, et al. Comprehensive review of pregnancy associated breast cancer: clinical features, molecular characteristics and novel therapies[J/OL]. Eur J Cancer, 2026, 235: 116230. DOI: 10.1016/j.ejca.2026.116230.
36. Holm JB, Rosendahl AH, Borgquist S. Local biomarkers involved in the interplay between obesity and breast cancer[J/OL]. Cancers (Basel), 2021, 13(24): 6286. DOI: 10.3390/cancers13246286.
37. Hou N, Hong S, Wang W, et al. Hormone replacement therapy and breast cancer: heterogeneous risks by race, weight, and breast density[J]. J Natl Cancer Inst, 2013, 105(18): 1365-1372.
38. Lee CS, Moy L, Joe BN, et al. Screening for breast cancer in women age 75 years and older[J]. AJR Am J Roentgenol, 2018, 210(2): 256-263.
39. Al Hasan SM, Bennett DL, Toriola AT. Screening programmes and breast cancer mortality: an observational study of 194 countries[J]. Bull World Health Organ, 2025, 103(8): 470-483.
40. Schmidt M, Loibl S. Chemotherapy in older patients with early breast cancer[J/OL]. Breast, 2024, 78: 103821. DOI: 10.1016/j.breast.2024.103821.
41. Roth S, Apte M, Balachandran VP, et al. Pancreatic cancer[J/OL]. Nat Rev Dis Primers, 2026, 12(1): 23. DOI: 10.1038/s41572-026-00699-6.
42. Yang S, Yeoh KW, Wong MC, et al. Disparities of birth cohort effects on pancreatic cancer incidence between the United States and urban China[J/OL]. ESMO Open, 2021, 6(5): 100240. DOI: 10.1016/j.esmoop.2021.100240.
43. Basch E, Oliver TK, Vickers A, et al. Screening for prostate cancer with prostate-specific antigen testing: American Society of Clinical Oncology provisional clinical opinion[J]. J Clin Oncol, 2012, 30(24): 3020-3025.
44. Lai SM, Keighley J, Garimella S, et al. Variations in age-adjusted prostate cancer incidence rates by race and ethnicity after changes in prostate-specific antigen screening recommendation[J/OL]. JAMA Netw Open, 2022, 5(11): e2240657. DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.40657.
45. Raychaudhuri R, Lin DW, Montgomery RB. Prostate cancer: a review[J]. JAMA, 2025, 333(16): 1433-1446.
46. Teng Y, Xia C, Cao M, et al. Lung cancer burden and trends from 2000 to 2018 in China: comparison between China and the United States[J]. Chin J Cancer Res, 2023, 35(6): 618-626.
47. Wang YQ, Li HZ, Gong WW, et al. Cancer incidence and mortality in Zhejiang Province, Southeast China, 2016: a population-based study[J]. Chin Med J (Engl), 2021, 134(16): 1959-1966.
48. Zheng R, Zhang S, Wang S, et al. Lung cancer incidence and mortality in China: updated statistics and an overview of temporal trends from 2000 to 2016[J]. J Natl Cancer Cent, 2022, 2(3): 139-147.
49. Guo T, Chen S, Wang Y, et al. Potential causal links of long-term air pollution with lung cancer incidence: from the perspectives of mortality and hospital admission in a large cohort study in southern China[J]. Int J Cancer, 2024, 154(2): 251-260.
50. Chen J, Atkinson RW, Andersen ZJ, et al. Long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and risk of lung cancer: a comparative analysis of incidence and mortality in four administrative cohorts in the ELAPSE study[J/OL]. Environ Res, 2024, 263(Pt 3): 120236. DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2024.120236.
51. Deng Y, Li Z, Zhang P, et al. Global, regional and national burden of lung cancer attributable to PM2.5 air pollution: trends from 1990 to 2021 with projections to 2045[J/OL]. J Environ Manage, 2025, 390: 126216. DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.126216.
52. Ju W, Zheng R, Zhang S, et al. Cancer statistics in Chinese older people, 2022: current burden, time trends, and comparisons with the US, Japan, and the Republic of Korea[J]. Sci China Life Sci, 2023, 66(5): 1079-1091.
53. Bellanger M, Lima SM, Cowppli-Bony A, et al. Effects of fertility on breast cancer incidence trends: comparing France and US[J]. Cancer Causes Control, 2021, 32(8): 903-910.
54. Biganzoli L, Battisti NML, Wildiers H, et al. Updated recommendations regarding the management of older patients with breast cancer: a joint paper from the European Society of Breast Cancer Specialists (EUSOMA) and the International Society of Geriatric Oncology (SIOG)[J/OL]. Lancet Oncol, 2021, 22(7): e327-e340. DOI: 10.1016/s1470-2045(20)30741-5.
55. Li C, Lei S, Xu Y, et al. Global, regional, national incidence, and mortality of breast cancer in older women: a population-based cancer registry data analysis[J]. Chin Med J (Engl), 2025, 138(22): 2917-2924.

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