Research progress of therapeutic vaccines for advanced non-small cell lung cancer_Chinese Journal of Clinical Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery

Authors：

XIAO Longmin ^1,2 , ZHOU Sixiang ^1,2 , WANG Donghui ^1,2 , WANG Qi ^1,2 ,  GOU Yunjiu ² ,  DONG Xinchun ²

1. First Clinical Medical School, Gansu University of Chinese Medicine, Lanzhou, 730000, P. R. China;
2. First Department of Thoracic Surgery, Gansu Provincial Hospital, Lanzhou, 730000, P. R. China;

Corresponding?author：

GOU Yunjiu, Email: 363729118@qq.com; DONG Xinchun, Email: gouyunjjiu@163.com

Keywords：

Advanced non-small cell lung cancer; lung cancer vaccine; immunotherapy; postoperative adjuvant therapy; review

DOI：

10.7507/1007-4848.202509046

Video：

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[Abstract]The treatment of advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) has long been a major challenge in the field of oncology. As a novel immunotherapeutic approach, therapeutic vaccines exhibit potential application value in the treatment of advanced NSCLC by eliciting the body’s specific anti-tumor immune response. Existing research evidence indicates that some therapeutic vaccines can prolong the survival of patients in specific advanced NSCLC populations; however, the overall efficacy is limited by issues such as small sample sizes in clinical trials and low quality of evidence. Combination therapy strategies, particularly the combined application with immune checkpoint inhibitors, may serve as a key direction to break through the existing bottlenecks in advanced NSCLC treatment. Based on current research findings, this article systematically elaborates on the main types, mechanisms of action, clinical efficacy, and safety of therapeutic vaccines for advanced NSCLC, conducts an in-depth analysis of the limitations in current research, and provides an outlook on future research directions.

1.	Meyer ML, Fitzgerald BG, Paz-Ares L, et al. New promises and challenges in the treatment of advanced non-small-cell lung cancer. Lancet, 2024, 404(10454): 803-822.
2.	Ganti AK, Klein AB, Cotarla I, et al. Update of incidence, prevalence, survival, and initial treatment in patients with non-small cell lung cancer in the US. JAMA Oncol, 2021, 7(12): 1824-1832.
3.	Hendriks LEL, Remon J, Faivre-Finn C, et al. Non-small-cell lung cancer. Nat Rev Dis Primers, 2024, 10(1): 71.
4.	Ma L, Chen C, Zhao C, et al. Targeting carnitine palmitoyl transferase 1A (CPT1A) induces ferroptosis and synergizes with immunotherapy in lung cancer. Signal Transduct Target Ther, 2024, 9(1): 64.
5.	Wojas-Krawczyk K, Krawczyk P, Gil M, et al. Two complementarity immunotherapeutics in non-small-cell lung cancer patients-mechanism of action and future concepts. Cancers (Basel), 2021, 13(11): 2730.
6.	Zaidi N, Jaffee EM, Yarchoan M. Recent advances in therapeutic cancer vaccines. Nat Rev Cancer, 2025, 25(7): 517-533.
7.	Fan T, Zhang M, Yang J, et al. Therapeutic cancer vaccines: advancements, challenges, and prospects. Signal Transduct Target Ther, 2023, 8(1): 450.
8.	Morse MA, Crosby EJ, Force J, et al. Clinical trials of self-replicating RNA-based cancer vaccines. Cancer Gene Ther, 2023, 30(6): 803-811.
9.	Caridi S, Maccauro V, Cerrito L, et al. Cancer vaccines: a promising therapeutic strategy in advanced solid tumors. Vaccines (Basel), 2025, 13(6): 599.
10.	Basu A, Albert GK, Awshah S, et al. Identification of immunogenic MHC class II human HER3 peptides that mediate anti-HER3 CD4(+) Th1 responses and potential use as a cancer vaccine. Cancer Immunol Res, 2022, 10(1): 108-125.
11.	Crombet Ramos T, Rodríguez PC, Neninger Vinageras E, et al. CIMAvax EGF (EGF-P64K) vaccine for the treatment of non-small-cell lung cancer. Expert Rev Vaccines, 2015, 14(10): 1303-1311.
12.	Saavedra D, Crombet T. CIMAvax-EGF: a new therapeutic vaccine for advanced non-small cell lung cancer patients. Front Immunol, 2017, 8: 269.
13.	Neninger Vinageras E, de la Torre A, Osorio Rodríguez M, et al. Phase II randomized controlled trial of an epidermal growth factor vaccine in advanced non-small-cell lung cancer. J Clin Oncol, 2008, 26(9): 1452-1458.
14.	Rodriguez PC, Popa X, Martínez O, et al. A phase Ⅲ clinical trial of the epidermal growth factor vaccine CIMAvax-EGF as switch maintenance therapy in advanced non-small cell lung cancer patients. Clin Cancer Res, 2016, 22(15): 3782-3790.
15.	Cortés-Jofré M, Rueda-Etxebarria M, Orillard E, et al. Therapeutic vaccines for advanced non-small cell lung cancer. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2024, 3(3): CD013377.
16.	Evans R, Lee K, Wallace PK, et al. Augmenting antibody response to EGF-depleting immunotherapy: findings from a phase Ⅰ trial of CIMAvax-EGF in combination with nivolumab in advanced stage NSCLC. Front Oncol, 2022, 12: 958043.
17.	Wang J, Jiang D, Li Z, et al. BCAP31, a cancer/testis antigen-like protein, can act as a probe for non-small-cell lung cancer metastasis. Sci Rep, 2020, 10(1): 4025.
18.	Quoix E, Ramlau R, Westeel V, et al. Therapeutic vaccination with TG4010 and first-line chemotherapy in advanced non-small-cell lung cancer: a controlled phase 2B trial. Lancet Oncol, 2011, 12(12): 1125-1133.
19.	Quoix E, Lena H, Losonczy G, et al. TG4010 immunotherapy and first-line chemotherapy for advanced non-small-cell lung cancer (TIME): results from the phase 2b part of a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2b/3 trial. Lancet Oncol, 2016, 17(2): 212-223.
20.	Tosch C, Bastien B, Barraud L, et al. Viral based vaccine TG4010 induces broadening of specific immune response and improves outcome in advanced NSCLC. J Immunother Cancer, 2017, 5(1): 70.
21.	Besse B, Felip E, Garcia Campelo R, et al. Randomized open-label controlled study of cancer vaccine OSE2101 versus chemotherapy in HLA-A2-positive patients with advanced non-small-cell lung cancer with resistance to immunotherapy: ATALANTE-1. Ann Oncol, 2023, 34(10): 920-933.
22.	Eslami SM, Lu X. Recent advances in mRNA-based cancer vaccines encoding immunostimulants and their delivery strategies. J Control Release, 2024, 376: 413-428.
23.	Yaremeko AV, Khan MM, Zhen X, et al. Clinical advances of mRNA vaccines for cancer immunotherapy. Med, 2025, 6(1): 100562.
24.	Gridelli C, Ciuleanu T, Domine M, et al. Clinical activity of a htert (vx-001) cancer vaccine as post-chemotherapy maintenance immunotherapy in patients with stage IV non-small cell lung cancer: final results of a randomised phase 2 clinical trial. Br J Cancer, 2020, 122(10): 1461-1466.
25.	Vázquez AM, Hernández AM, Macías A, et al. Racotumomab: an anti-idiotype vaccine related to N-glycolyl-containing gangliosides-preclinical and clinical data. Front Oncol, 2012, 2: 150.
26.	Alfonso S, Valdés-Zayas A, Santiesteban ER, et al. A randomized, multicenter, placebo-controlled clinical trial of racotumomab-alum vaccine as switch maintenance therapy in advanced non-small cell lung cancer patients. Clin Cancer Res, 2014, 20(14): 3660-3671.
27.	Hernandez M, Neninger E, Santiesteban E, et al. Efficacy of racotumomab or nimotuzumab vs docetaxel as second-line therapy for advanced non-small cell lung cancer patients. Ann Oncol, 2018, 29: viii415.
28.	Lin X, Tang S, Guo Y, et al. Personalized neoantigen vaccine enhances the therapeutic efficacy of bevacizumab and anti-PD-1 antibody in advanced non-small cell lung cancer. Cancer Immunol Immunother, 2024, 73(2): 26.
29.	Takayama K, Sugawara S, Saijo Y, et al. Randomized phase Ⅱ study of docetaxel plus personalized peptide vaccination versus docetaxel plus placebo for patients with previously treated advanced wild type EGFR non-small-cell lung cancer. J Immunol Res, 2016, 2016: 1745108.
30.	Amaya-Ramirez D, Martinez-Enriquez LC, Parra-López C. Usefulness of docking and molecular dynamics in selecting tumor neoantigens to design personalized cancer vaccines: a proof of concept. Vaccines (Basel), 2023, 11(7): 1267.
31.	Weber JS, Carlino MS, Khattak A, et al. Individualised neoantigen therapy mRNA-4157 (V940) plus pembrolizumab versus pembrolizumab monotherapy in resected melanoma (KEYNOTE-942): a randomised, phase 2b study. Lancet, 2024, 403(10427): 632-644.
32.	Chen H, Zhu Z, Lv K, et al. Uniform polymeric nanovaccine platform for improving the availability and efficacy of neoantigen peptides. Nano Lett, 2024, 24(33): 10114-10123.
33.	Sullivan RJ, Yeku OO, Teoh D, et al. First-in-human phase Ⅰ/Ⅱ, open-label study of mRNA-2416 alone or combined with durvalumab in patients with advanced solid tumors and ovarian cancer. Oncologist, 2025, 30(6): e508-e520.
34.	O'Brien ME, Saini A, Smith IE, et al. A randomized phase Ⅱ study of SRL172 (Mycobacterium vaccae) combined with chemotherapy in patients with advanced inoperable non-small-cell lung cancer and mesothelioma. Br J Cancer, 2000, 83(7): 853-857.
35.	Lecocq I, Kopp KL, Chapellier M, et al. CCL22-based peptide vaccines induce anti-cancer immunity by modulating tumor microenvironment. Oncoimmunology, 2022, 11(1): 2115655.
36.	Caushi JX, Zhang J, Ji Z, et al. Transcriptional programs of neoantigen-specific TIL in anti-PD-1-treated lung cancers. Nature, 2021, 596(7870): 126-132.
37.	Domingos-Pereira S, Roh V, Hiou-Feige A, et al. Vaccination with a nanoparticle E7 vaccine can prevent tumor recurrence following surgery in a human papillomavirus head and neck cancer model. Oncoimmunology, 2021, 10(1): 1912473.
38.	Zhang XC, Wang J, Shao GG, et al. Comprehensive genomic and immunological characterization of Chinese non-small cell lung cancer patients. Nat Commun, 2019, 10(1): 1772.
39.	Diao L, Liu M. Rethinking antigen source: cancer vaccines based on whole tumor cell/tissue lysate or whole tumor cell. Adv Sci (Weinh), 2023, 10(22): e2300121.
40.	Hu Y, Zhou T, Cai P, et al. Neoantigens: new hope for cancer therapy. Front Oncol, 2025, 15: 1531592.
41.	Zeng Q, Zhang S, Leng N, et al. Advancing tumor vaccines: overcoming TME challenges, delivery strategies, and biomaterial-based vaccine for enhanced immunotherapy. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol, 2025, 205: 104576.
42.	Zanotta S, Galati D, De Filippi R, et al. Enhancing dendritic cell cancer vaccination: the synergy of immune checkpoint inhibitors in combined therapies. Int J Mol Sci, 2024, 25(14): 7845.
43.	Awad MM, Govindan R, Balogh KN, et al. Personalized neoantigen vaccine NEO-PV-01 with chemotherapy and anti-PD-1 as first-line treatment for non-squamous non-small cell lung cancer. Cancer Cell, 2022, 40(9): 1010-1026. e11.
44.	Guo Z, Yuan Y, Chen C, et al. Durable complete response to neoantigen-loaded dendritic-cell vaccine following anti-PD-1 therapy in metastatic gastric cancer. NPJ Precis Oncol, 2022, 6(1): 34.
45.	Chen Y, Qin H, Li N, et al. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy by liposomal doxorubicin boosts immune protection of tumor membrane antigens-based nanovaccine. Cell Rep Med, 2025, 6(1): 101877.
46.	Dolgin E. How personalized cancer vaccines could keep tumours from coming back. Nature, 2024, 630(8016): 290-292.
47.	Kiousi E, Lyrakaki V, Mardiki GL, et al. Progress and challenges of messenger RNA vaccines in the therapeutics of NSCLC. Cancers (Basel), 2023, 15(23): 5672.
48.	Waki K, Yokomizo K, Yoshiyama K, et al. Integrity of circulating cell-free DNA as a prognostic biomarker for vaccine therapy in patients with nonsmall cell lung cancer. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol, 2021, 43(2): 176-182.
49.	Xue X, Ngorsuraches S, Johnson B, et al. Cost-effectiveness of cemiplimab plus chemotherapy vs pembrolizumab plus chemotherapy as first-line treatment for advanced non-small cell lung cancer. J Manag Care Spec Pharm, 2025, 31(2): 137-146.
50.	Miao L, Zhang Y, Huang L. mRNA vaccine for cancer immunotherapy. Mol Cancer, 2021, 20(1): 41.
51.	Ortiz Carrodeguas RA, Lorenzo Monteagudo G, Guerra Chaviano PP, et al. Safety and effectiveness of CIMAvax-EGF administered in community polyclinics. Front Oncol, 2023, 13: 1287902.

1. Meyer ML, Fitzgerald BG, Paz-Ares L, et al. New promises and challenges in the treatment of advanced non-small-cell lung cancer. Lancet, 2024, 404(10454): 803-822.
2. Ganti AK, Klein AB, Cotarla I, et al. Update of incidence, prevalence, survival, and initial treatment in patients with non-small cell lung cancer in the US. JAMA Oncol, 2021, 7(12): 1824-1832.
3. Hendriks LEL, Remon J, Faivre-Finn C, et al. Non-small-cell lung cancer. Nat Rev Dis Primers, 2024, 10(1): 71.
4. Ma L, Chen C, Zhao C, et al. Targeting carnitine palmitoyl transferase 1A (CPT1A) induces ferroptosis and synergizes with immunotherapy in lung cancer. Signal Transduct Target Ther, 2024, 9(1): 64.
5. Wojas-Krawczyk K, Krawczyk P, Gil M, et al. Two complementarity immunotherapeutics in non-small-cell lung cancer patients-mechanism of action and future concepts. Cancers (Basel), 2021, 13(11): 2730.
6. Zaidi N, Jaffee EM, Yarchoan M. Recent advances in therapeutic cancer vaccines. Nat Rev Cancer, 2025, 25(7): 517-533.
7. Fan T, Zhang M, Yang J, et al. Therapeutic cancer vaccines: advancements, challenges, and prospects. Signal Transduct Target Ther, 2023, 8(1): 450.
8. Morse MA, Crosby EJ, Force J, et al. Clinical trials of self-replicating RNA-based cancer vaccines. Cancer Gene Ther, 2023, 30(6): 803-811.
9. Caridi S, Maccauro V, Cerrito L, et al. Cancer vaccines: a promising therapeutic strategy in advanced solid tumors. Vaccines (Basel), 2025, 13(6): 599.
10. Basu A, Albert GK, Awshah S, et al. Identification of immunogenic MHC class II human HER3 peptides that mediate anti-HER3 CD4(+) Th1 responses and potential use as a cancer vaccine. Cancer Immunol Res, 2022, 10(1): 108-125.
11. Crombet Ramos T, Rodríguez PC, Neninger Vinageras E, et al. CIMAvax EGF (EGF-P64K) vaccine for the treatment of non-small-cell lung cancer. Expert Rev Vaccines, 2015, 14(10): 1303-1311.
12. Saavedra D, Crombet T. CIMAvax-EGF: a new therapeutic vaccine for advanced non-small cell lung cancer patients. Front Immunol, 2017, 8: 269.
13. Neninger Vinageras E, de la Torre A, Osorio Rodríguez M, et al. Phase II randomized controlled trial of an epidermal growth factor vaccine in advanced non-small-cell lung cancer. J Clin Oncol, 2008, 26(9): 1452-1458.
14. Rodriguez PC, Popa X, Martínez O, et al. A phase Ⅲ clinical trial of the epidermal growth factor vaccine CIMAvax-EGF as switch maintenance therapy in advanced non-small cell lung cancer patients. Clin Cancer Res, 2016, 22(15): 3782-3790.
15. Cortés-Jofré M, Rueda-Etxebarria M, Orillard E, et al. Therapeutic vaccines for advanced non-small cell lung cancer. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2024, 3(3): CD013377.
16. Evans R, Lee K, Wallace PK, et al. Augmenting antibody response to EGF-depleting immunotherapy: findings from a phase Ⅰ trial of CIMAvax-EGF in combination with nivolumab in advanced stage NSCLC. Front Oncol, 2022, 12: 958043.
17. Wang J, Jiang D, Li Z, et al. BCAP31, a cancer/testis antigen-like protein, can act as a probe for non-small-cell lung cancer metastasis. Sci Rep, 2020, 10(1): 4025.
18. Quoix E, Ramlau R, Westeel V, et al. Therapeutic vaccination with TG4010 and first-line chemotherapy in advanced non-small-cell lung cancer: a controlled phase 2B trial. Lancet Oncol, 2011, 12(12): 1125-1133.
19. Quoix E, Lena H, Losonczy G, et al. TG4010 immunotherapy and first-line chemotherapy for advanced non-small-cell lung cancer (TIME): results from the phase 2b part of a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2b/3 trial. Lancet Oncol, 2016, 17(2): 212-223.
20. Tosch C, Bastien B, Barraud L, et al. Viral based vaccine TG4010 induces broadening of specific immune response and improves outcome in advanced NSCLC. J Immunother Cancer, 2017, 5(1): 70.
21. Besse B, Felip E, Garcia Campelo R, et al. Randomized open-label controlled study of cancer vaccine OSE2101 versus chemotherapy in HLA-A2-positive patients with advanced non-small-cell lung cancer with resistance to immunotherapy: ATALANTE-1. Ann Oncol, 2023, 34(10): 920-933.
22. Eslami SM, Lu X. Recent advances in mRNA-based cancer vaccines encoding immunostimulants and their delivery strategies. J Control Release, 2024, 376: 413-428.
23. Yaremeko AV, Khan MM, Zhen X, et al. Clinical advances of mRNA vaccines for cancer immunotherapy. Med, 2025, 6(1): 100562.
24. Gridelli C, Ciuleanu T, Domine M, et al. Clinical activity of a htert (vx-001) cancer vaccine as post-chemotherapy maintenance immunotherapy in patients with stage IV non-small cell lung cancer: final results of a randomised phase 2 clinical trial. Br J Cancer, 2020, 122(10): 1461-1466.
25. Vázquez AM, Hernández AM, Macías A, et al. Racotumomab: an anti-idiotype vaccine related to N-glycolyl-containing gangliosides-preclinical and clinical data. Front Oncol, 2012, 2: 150.
26. Alfonso S, Valdés-Zayas A, Santiesteban ER, et al. A randomized, multicenter, placebo-controlled clinical trial of racotumomab-alum vaccine as switch maintenance therapy in advanced non-small cell lung cancer patients. Clin Cancer Res, 2014, 20(14): 3660-3671.
27. Hernandez M, Neninger E, Santiesteban E, et al. Efficacy of racotumomab or nimotuzumab vs docetaxel as second-line therapy for advanced non-small cell lung cancer patients. Ann Oncol, 2018, 29: viii415.
28. Lin X, Tang S, Guo Y, et al. Personalized neoantigen vaccine enhances the therapeutic efficacy of bevacizumab and anti-PD-1 antibody in advanced non-small cell lung cancer. Cancer Immunol Immunother, 2024, 73(2): 26.
29. Takayama K, Sugawara S, Saijo Y, et al. Randomized phase Ⅱ study of docetaxel plus personalized peptide vaccination versus docetaxel plus placebo for patients with previously treated advanced wild type EGFR non-small-cell lung cancer. J Immunol Res, 2016, 2016: 1745108.
30. Amaya-Ramirez D, Martinez-Enriquez LC, Parra-López C. Usefulness of docking and molecular dynamics in selecting tumor neoantigens to design personalized cancer vaccines: a proof of concept. Vaccines (Basel), 2023, 11(7): 1267.
31. Weber JS, Carlino MS, Khattak A, et al. Individualised neoantigen therapy mRNA-4157 (V940) plus pembrolizumab versus pembrolizumab monotherapy in resected melanoma (KEYNOTE-942): a randomised, phase 2b study. Lancet, 2024, 403(10427): 632-644.
32. Chen H, Zhu Z, Lv K, et al. Uniform polymeric nanovaccine platform for improving the availability and efficacy of neoantigen peptides. Nano Lett, 2024, 24(33): 10114-10123.
33. Sullivan RJ, Yeku OO, Teoh D, et al. First-in-human phase Ⅰ/Ⅱ, open-label study of mRNA-2416 alone or combined with durvalumab in patients with advanced solid tumors and ovarian cancer. Oncologist, 2025, 30(6): e508-e520.
34. O'Brien ME, Saini A, Smith IE, et al. A randomized phase Ⅱ study of SRL172 (Mycobacterium vaccae) combined with chemotherapy in patients with advanced inoperable non-small-cell lung cancer and mesothelioma. Br J Cancer, 2000, 83(7): 853-857.
35. Lecocq I, Kopp KL, Chapellier M, et al. CCL22-based peptide vaccines induce anti-cancer immunity by modulating tumor microenvironment. Oncoimmunology, 2022, 11(1): 2115655.
36. Caushi JX, Zhang J, Ji Z, et al. Transcriptional programs of neoantigen-specific TIL in anti-PD-1-treated lung cancers. Nature, 2021, 596(7870): 126-132.
37. Domingos-Pereira S, Roh V, Hiou-Feige A, et al. Vaccination with a nanoparticle E7 vaccine can prevent tumor recurrence following surgery in a human papillomavirus head and neck cancer model. Oncoimmunology, 2021, 10(1): 1912473.
38. Zhang XC, Wang J, Shao GG, et al. Comprehensive genomic and immunological characterization of Chinese non-small cell lung cancer patients. Nat Commun, 2019, 10(1): 1772.
39. Diao L, Liu M. Rethinking antigen source: cancer vaccines based on whole tumor cell/tissue lysate or whole tumor cell. Adv Sci (Weinh), 2023, 10(22): e2300121.
40. Hu Y, Zhou T, Cai P, et al. Neoantigens: new hope for cancer therapy. Front Oncol, 2025, 15: 1531592.
41. Zeng Q, Zhang S, Leng N, et al. Advancing tumor vaccines: overcoming TME challenges, delivery strategies, and biomaterial-based vaccine for enhanced immunotherapy. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol, 2025, 205: 104576.
42. Zanotta S, Galati D, De Filippi R, et al. Enhancing dendritic cell cancer vaccination: the synergy of immune checkpoint inhibitors in combined therapies. Int J Mol Sci, 2024, 25(14): 7845.
43. Awad MM, Govindan R, Balogh KN, et al. Personalized neoantigen vaccine NEO-PV-01 with chemotherapy and anti-PD-1 as first-line treatment for non-squamous non-small cell lung cancer. Cancer Cell, 2022, 40(9): 1010-1026. e11.
44. Guo Z, Yuan Y, Chen C, et al. Durable complete response to neoantigen-loaded dendritic-cell vaccine following anti-PD-1 therapy in metastatic gastric cancer. NPJ Precis Oncol, 2022, 6(1): 34.
45. Chen Y, Qin H, Li N, et al. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy by liposomal doxorubicin boosts immune protection of tumor membrane antigens-based nanovaccine. Cell Rep Med, 2025, 6(1): 101877.
46. Dolgin E. How personalized cancer vaccines could keep tumours from coming back. Nature, 2024, 630(8016): 290-292.
47. Kiousi E, Lyrakaki V, Mardiki GL, et al. Progress and challenges of messenger RNA vaccines in the therapeutics of NSCLC. Cancers (Basel), 2023, 15(23): 5672.
48. Waki K, Yokomizo K, Yoshiyama K, et al. Integrity of circulating cell-free DNA as a prognostic biomarker for vaccine therapy in patients with nonsmall cell lung cancer. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol, 2021, 43(2): 176-182.
49. Xue X, Ngorsuraches S, Johnson B, et al. Cost-effectiveness of cemiplimab plus chemotherapy vs pembrolizumab plus chemotherapy as first-line treatment for advanced non-small cell lung cancer. J Manag Care Spec Pharm, 2025, 31(2): 137-146.
50. Miao L, Zhang Y, Huang L. mRNA vaccine for cancer immunotherapy. Mol Cancer, 2021, 20(1): 41.
51. Ortiz Carrodeguas RA, Lorenzo Monteagudo G, Guerra Chaviano PP, et al. Safety and effectiveness of CIMAvax-EGF administered in community polyclinics. Front Oncol, 2023, 13: 1287902.

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