Forty years of infection prevention and control in China: achievements, challenges, and future development_West China Medical Journal

Authors：

QIAO Fu ^1,2 ,  ZONG Zhiyong ²

1. Department of Infection Control, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P. R. China;
2. Center of Infectious Diseases, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P. R. China;

Corresponding?author：

ZONG Zhiyong, Email: zongzhiy@scu.edu.cn

Keywords：

Healthcare-associated infection; prevention and control; challenges; future development

DOI：

10.7507/1002-0179.202602201

Video：

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After 40 years of localized development, infection prevention and control in China has established a comprehensive system, achieving remarkable results in both process indicators and outcome indicators. However, in the new historical stage, infection control still faces numerous problems and challenges. This article briefly summarizes the significant achievements in infection control over the past 40 years, analyzes the main challenges currently encountered, and proposes future development directions, hoping to provide insights for infection control practitioners.

Citation： QIAO Fu, ZONG Zhiyong. Forty years of infection prevention and control in China: achievements, challenges, and future development. West China Medical Journal, 2026, 41(3): 353-357. doi: 10.7507/1002-0179.202602201 Copy

1.	喬甫, 武迎宏, 馬海燕. 測“感控溫度”, 控“感染風險”——關于地區醫院感染質量控制中心建設的思考. 華西醫學, 2025, 40(3): 343-347.
2.	李六億, 李秋麗, 鞏志業, 等. 全國醫院感染監控系統部分監控醫院調查報告. 中國醫院感染學雜志, 1992(3): 189-192.
3.	Chen WS, Lin JZ, Zhang K, et al. Bathing with 2% chlorhexidine gluconate versus routine care for preventing surgical site infections after pancreatic surgery: a single-centre randomized controlled trial. Clin Microbiol Infect, 2025, 31(5): 825-831.
4.	Zhao LY, Zhang WH, Liu K, et al. Comparing the efficacy of povidone-iodine and normal saline in incisional wound irrigation to prevent superficial surgical site infection: a randomized clinical trial in gastric surgery. J Hosp Infect, 2023, 131: 99-106.
5.	文細毛, 黃勛, 曾爛漫. 2019 年全國醫療機構醫務人員診療過程手衛生監測報告. 中國感染控制雜志, 2021, 20(5): 389-395.
6.	Wetzker W, Bunte-Sch?nberger K, Walter J, et al. Compliance with hand hygiene: reference data from the national hand hygiene campaign in Germany. J Hosp Infect, 2016, 92(4): 328-331.
7.	Lambe KA, Lydon S, Madden C, et al. Hand hygiene compliance in the ICU: a systematic review. Crit Care Med, 2019, 47(9):1251-1257.
8.	吳安華, 任南, 文細毛, 等. 全國醫院感染監控網 1998~1999 年監測資料分析. 中華醫院感染學雜志, 2000, 10(6): 6-8.
9.	曾翠, 高武強, 喬甫. 2024 年全國 5736 所醫療機構醫院感染橫斷面調查分析. 中國感染控制雜志, 2025, 24(11): 1572-1583.
10.	任南, 文細毛, 吳安華. 全國醫院感染橫斷面調查結果的變化趨勢研究. 中國感染控制雜志, 2007, 6(1): 16-18.
11.	Lin J, Peng Y, Guo L, et al. The incidence of surgical site infections in China. J Hosp Infect, 2024, 146: 206-223.
12.	World Health Organization. WHO bacterial priority pathogens list, 2024: bacterial pathogens of public health importance to guide research, development and strategies to prevent and control antimicrobial resistance. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2024.
13.	喬甫, 宗志勇. 世界衛生組織《醫療機構耐碳青霉烯的腸桿菌科細菌、銅綠假單胞菌和鮑曼不動桿菌防控指南》介紹. 華西醫學, 2018, 33(3): 259-263.
14.	喬甫, 陳億, 宗志勇. 《碳青霉烯類耐藥腸桿菌預防與控制標準》解讀與釋義. 華西醫學, 2024, 39(3): 362-366.
15.	Qiao F, Wei L, Feng Y, et al. Handwashing sink contamination and carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella infection in the intensive care unit: a prospective multicenter study. Clin Infect Dis, 2020, 71(Suppl 4): S379-S385.
16.	Hu Y, Zhang H, Wei L, et al. Competitive transmission of carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae in a newly opened intensive care unit. mSystems, 2022, 7(6): e0079922.
17.	康霞, 黃文治, 衛麗, 等. 急診重癥監護室多重耐藥菌主動篩查的流行病學研究. 華西醫學, 2021, 36(3): 328-333.
18.	Jin Y, Xu W, Liu F, et al. The status of infection prevention and control structures in secondary and tertiary hospitals in Northwest China: findings from WHO Infection Prevention and Control Assessment Framework (IPCAF). Antimicrob Resist Infect Contro, 2025, 14(1): 85.
19.	Ni K, Jin D, Wu Z, et al. The status of infection prevention and control structures in Eastern China based on the IPCAF tool of the World Health Organization. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control, 2022, 11(1): 46.
20.	肖園園, 李春輝. 艱難梭菌醫院感染管理: 監測與防控. 疾病監測, 2021, 36(9): 969-974.
21.	van Dijk MD, Voor In ’t Holt AF, Alp E, et al. Infection prevention and control policies in hospitals and prevalence of highly resistant microorganisms: an international comparative study. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control, 2022, 11(1): 152.
22.	Wang X, Bing J, Zheng Q, et al. The first isolate of Candida auris in China: clinical and biological aspects. Emerg Microbes Infect, 2018, 7(1): 93.
23.	Bing J, Du H, Guo P, et al. Candida auris-associated hospitalizations and outbreaks, China, 2018-2023. Emerg Microbes Infect, 2024, 13(1): 2302843.
24.	Zhao H, Wang W, Zhao L, et al. The first imported case of monkeypox in the mainland of China - Chongqing municipality, China, september 16, 2022. China CDC weekly, 2022, 4(38):853-854.
25.	He F, Liang Y, Gong Y, et al. Clinical epidemiology and viral genomics insights from a Chikungunya fever outbreak in South China, 2025. Front Cell Infect Microbiol, 2026, 16: 1762631.
26.	Peng Y, Wang Y, Li S, et al. Infection prevention and control measures for emerging infectious disease: lessons learned from the first case of imported Lassa fever in China. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control, 2025, 14(1): 74.
27.	Zingg W, Holmes A, Dettenkofer M, et al. Hospital organisation, management, and structure for prevention of health-care-associated infection: a systematic review and expert consensus. Lancet Infect Dis, 2015, 15(2): 212-224.
28.	Gregory ME, MacEwan SR, Sova LN, et al. A qualitative examination of interprofessional teamwork for infection prevention: development of a model and solutions. Med Care Res Rev, 2023, 80(1): 30-42.
29.	Sundermann AJ, Kumar P, Griffith MP, et al. Real-time genomic surveillance for enhanced healthcare outbreak detection and control: clinical and economic impact. Clin Infect Dis, 2026, 82(1): 134-141.
30.	Markwart R, Saito H, Harder T, et al. Epidemiology and burden of sepsis acquired in hospitals and intensive care units: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med, 2020, 46(8):1536-1551.
31.	Cox J, Douglas L, Wemmer V, et al. The role of patient engagement in surgical site infection reduction: a process improvement project. Adv Skin Wound Care, 2023, 36(11):599-603.
32.	Stewardson AJ, Sax H, Gayet-Ageron A, et al. Enhanced performance feedback and patient participation to improve hand hygiene compliance of health-care workers in the setting of established multimodal promotion: a single-centre, cluster randomised controlled trial. Lancet Infect Dis, 2016, 16(12):1345-1355.
33.	van der Werff SD, van Rooden SM, Henriksson A, et al. The future of healthcare-associated infection surveillance: automated surveillance and using the potential of artificial intelligence. J Intern Med, 2025, 298(2): 54-77.
34.	Muaddi H, Choudhary A, Lee F, et al. Imaging-based surgical site infection detection using artificial intelligence. Ann Surg, 2025, 282(3): 419-428.
35.	Wong SC, Ip SC, Kwok MO, et al. Promoting hand hygiene in a chemotherapy day center: the role of a robot. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control, 2024, 13(1): 154.

1. 喬甫, 武迎宏, 馬海燕. 測“感控溫度”, 控“感染風險”——關于地區醫院感染質量控制中心建設的思考. 華西醫學, 2025, 40(3): 343-347.
2. 李六億, 李秋麗, 鞏志業, 等. 全國醫院感染監控系統部分監控醫院調查報告. 中國醫院感染學雜志, 1992(3): 189-192.
3. Chen WS, Lin JZ, Zhang K, et al. Bathing with 2% chlorhexidine gluconate versus routine care for preventing surgical site infections after pancreatic surgery: a single-centre randomized controlled trial. Clin Microbiol Infect, 2025, 31(5): 825-831.
4. Zhao LY, Zhang WH, Liu K, et al. Comparing the efficacy of povidone-iodine and normal saline in incisional wound irrigation to prevent superficial surgical site infection: a randomized clinical trial in gastric surgery. J Hosp Infect, 2023, 131: 99-106.
5. 文細毛, 黃勛, 曾爛漫. 2019 年全國醫療機構醫務人員診療過程手衛生監測報告. 中國感染控制雜志, 2021, 20(5): 389-395.
6. Wetzker W, Bunte-Sch?nberger K, Walter J, et al. Compliance with hand hygiene: reference data from the national hand hygiene campaign in Germany. J Hosp Infect, 2016, 92(4): 328-331.
7. Lambe KA, Lydon S, Madden C, et al. Hand hygiene compliance in the ICU: a systematic review. Crit Care Med, 2019, 47(9):1251-1257.
8. 吳安華, 任南, 文細毛, 等. 全國醫院感染監控網 1998~1999 年監測資料分析. 中華醫院感染學雜志, 2000, 10(6): 6-8.
9. 曾翠, 高武強, 喬甫. 2024 年全國 5736 所醫療機構醫院感染橫斷面調查分析. 中國感染控制雜志, 2025, 24(11): 1572-1583.
10. 任南, 文細毛, 吳安華. 全國醫院感染橫斷面調查結果的變化趨勢研究. 中國感染控制雜志, 2007, 6(1): 16-18.
11. Lin J, Peng Y, Guo L, et al. The incidence of surgical site infections in China. J Hosp Infect, 2024, 146: 206-223.
12. World Health Organization. WHO bacterial priority pathogens list, 2024: bacterial pathogens of public health importance to guide research, development and strategies to prevent and control antimicrobial resistance. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2024.
13. 喬甫, 宗志勇. 世界衛生組織《醫療機構耐碳青霉烯的腸桿菌科細菌、銅綠假單胞菌和鮑曼不動桿菌防控指南》介紹. 華西醫學, 2018, 33(3): 259-263.
14. 喬甫, 陳億, 宗志勇. 《碳青霉烯類耐藥腸桿菌預防與控制標準》解讀與釋義. 華西醫學, 2024, 39(3): 362-366.
15. Qiao F, Wei L, Feng Y, et al. Handwashing sink contamination and carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella infection in the intensive care unit: a prospective multicenter study. Clin Infect Dis, 2020, 71(Suppl 4): S379-S385.
16. Hu Y, Zhang H, Wei L, et al. Competitive transmission of carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae in a newly opened intensive care unit. mSystems, 2022, 7(6): e0079922.
17. 康霞, 黃文治, 衛麗, 等. 急診重癥監護室多重耐藥菌主動篩查的流行病學研究. 華西醫學, 2021, 36(3): 328-333.
18. Jin Y, Xu W, Liu F, et al. The status of infection prevention and control structures in secondary and tertiary hospitals in Northwest China: findings from WHO Infection Prevention and Control Assessment Framework (IPCAF). Antimicrob Resist Infect Contro, 2025, 14(1): 85.
19. Ni K, Jin D, Wu Z, et al. The status of infection prevention and control structures in Eastern China based on the IPCAF tool of the World Health Organization. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control, 2022, 11(1): 46.
20. 肖園園, 李春輝. 艱難梭菌醫院感染管理: 監測與防控. 疾病監測, 2021, 36(9): 969-974.
21. van Dijk MD, Voor In ’t Holt AF, Alp E, et al. Infection prevention and control policies in hospitals and prevalence of highly resistant microorganisms: an international comparative study. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control, 2022, 11(1): 152.
22. Wang X, Bing J, Zheng Q, et al. The first isolate of Candida auris in China: clinical and biological aspects. Emerg Microbes Infect, 2018, 7(1): 93.
23. Bing J, Du H, Guo P, et al. Candida auris-associated hospitalizations and outbreaks, China, 2018-2023. Emerg Microbes Infect, 2024, 13(1): 2302843.
24. Zhao H, Wang W, Zhao L, et al. The first imported case of monkeypox in the mainland of China - Chongqing municipality, China, september 16, 2022. China CDC weekly, 2022, 4(38):853-854.
25. He F, Liang Y, Gong Y, et al. Clinical epidemiology and viral genomics insights from a Chikungunya fever outbreak in South China, 2025. Front Cell Infect Microbiol, 2026, 16: 1762631.
26. Peng Y, Wang Y, Li S, et al. Infection prevention and control measures for emerging infectious disease: lessons learned from the first case of imported Lassa fever in China. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control, 2025, 14(1): 74.
27. Zingg W, Holmes A, Dettenkofer M, et al. Hospital organisation, management, and structure for prevention of health-care-associated infection: a systematic review and expert consensus. Lancet Infect Dis, 2015, 15(2): 212-224.
28. Gregory ME, MacEwan SR, Sova LN, et al. A qualitative examination of interprofessional teamwork for infection prevention: development of a model and solutions. Med Care Res Rev, 2023, 80(1): 30-42.
29. Sundermann AJ, Kumar P, Griffith MP, et al. Real-time genomic surveillance for enhanced healthcare outbreak detection and control: clinical and economic impact. Clin Infect Dis, 2026, 82(1): 134-141.
30. Markwart R, Saito H, Harder T, et al. Epidemiology and burden of sepsis acquired in hospitals and intensive care units: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med, 2020, 46(8):1536-1551.
31. Cox J, Douglas L, Wemmer V, et al. The role of patient engagement in surgical site infection reduction: a process improvement project. Adv Skin Wound Care, 2023, 36(11):599-603.
32. Stewardson AJ, Sax H, Gayet-Ageron A, et al. Enhanced performance feedback and patient participation to improve hand hygiene compliance of health-care workers in the setting of established multimodal promotion: a single-centre, cluster randomised controlled trial. Lancet Infect Dis, 2016, 16(12):1345-1355.
33. van der Werff SD, van Rooden SM, Henriksson A, et al. The future of healthcare-associated infection surveillance: automated surveillance and using the potential of artificial intelligence. J Intern Med, 2025, 298(2): 54-77.
34. Muaddi H, Choudhary A, Lee F, et al. Imaging-based surgical site infection detection using artificial intelligence. Ann Surg, 2025, 282(3): 419-428.
35. Wong SC, Ip SC, Kwok MO, et al. Promoting hand hygiene in a chemotherapy day center: the role of a robot. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control, 2024, 13(1): 154.

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