Interpretation of 2023 American Heart Association guideline for the management of patients with cardiac arrest or life-threatening toxicity due to poisoning (Ⅲ): cyanide and other poisonings, and the management of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation_West China Medical Journal

Authors：

LI Yingyi ^1,2 , XIE Xuxin ^1,2 , YAO Peng ^1,2 , CHU Lili ^1,2 , XIANG Xinjie ^1,2 , PENG Aihua ^1,2 ,  CAO Yu ^1,2

1. Department of Emergency Medicine, Institute of Disaster Medicine and Institute of Emergency Medicine, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P. R. China;
2. Disaster Medical Center, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P. R. China;

Corresponding?author：

CAO Yu, Email: caoyu@wchscu.cn

Keywords：

Guideline; poisoning; cardiac arrest; emergency cardiovascular care; extracorporeal membrane oxygenation

DOI：

10.7507/1002-0179.202510044

Video：

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On September 18th, 2023, the American Heart Association published clinical management guidelines for cardiac arrest and critical cardiac conditions caused by poisoning in the journal Circulation. Based on the differences in drug toxicity effects, our team has systematically interpreted the guidelines in three parts. This article, as the third part, focuses on interpreting the clinical management strategies for cardiac arrest caused by cyanide, organophosphates, carbamate and methemoglobinemia, and reviews the application of veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in poisoning treatment. Through in-depth analysis of the key recommendations in the guidelines, it aims to provide reference for clinical diagnosis and treatment.

Citation： LI Yingyi, XIE Xuxin, YAO Peng, CHU Lili, XIANG Xinjie, PENG Aihua, CAO Yu. Interpretation of 2023 American Heart Association guideline for the management of patients with cardiac arrest or life-threatening toxicity due to poisoning (Ⅲ): cyanide and other poisonings, and the management of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. West China Medical Journal, 2025, 40(11): 1747-1753. doi: 10.7507/1002-0179.202510044 Copy

1.	Lavonas EJ, Akpunonu PD, Arens AM, et al. 2023 American Heart Association focused update on the management of patients with cardiac arrest or life-threatening toxicity due to poisoning: an update to the American Heart Association guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Circulation, 2023, 148(16): e149-e184.
2.	向昕杰, 褚莉莉, 姚鵬, 等. 2023 年美國心臟協會中毒所致心臟驟停及心臟危重癥管理指南解讀(一): 神經系統毒性物質中毒的管理. 華西醫學, 2023, 38(11): 1616-1624.
3.	廖登勇, 褚莉莉, 姚鵬, 等. 2023 年美國心臟協會中毒所致心臟驟停及心臟危重癥管理指南解讀(二): 心血管系統藥物中毒的管理. 華西醫學, 2024, 39(11): 1691-1698.
4.	Baud FJ, Barriot P, Toffis V, et al. Elevated blood cyanide concentrations in victims of smoke inhalation. N Engl J Med, 1991, 325(25): 1761-1766.
5.	Borron SW, Baud FJ, Barriot P, et al. Prospective study of hydroxocobalamin for acute cyanide poisoning in smoke inhalation. Ann Emerg Med, 2007, 49(6): 794-801, 801.e1-801.e2.
6.	Hendry-Hofer TB, Ng PC, Witeof AE, et al. A review on ingested cyanide: risks, clinical presentation, diagnostics, and treatment challenges. J Med Toxicol, 2019, 15(2): 128-133.
7.	Tshala-Katumbay DD, Ngombe NN, Okitundu D, et al. Cyanide and the human brain: perspectives from a model of food (cassava) poisoning. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 2016, 1378(1): 50-57.
8.	Pettersen JC, Cohen SD. The effects of cyanide on brain mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase and respiratory activities. J Appl Toxicol, 1993, 13(1): 9-14.
9.	Parker-Cote JL, Rizer J, Vakkalanka JP, et al. Challenges in the diagnosis of acute cyanide poisoning. Clin Toxicol (Phila), 2018, 56(7): 609-617.
10.	Petrikovics I, Budai M, Kovacs K, et al. Past, present and future of cyanide antagonism research: from the early remedies to the current therapies. World J Methodol, 2015, 5(2): 88-100.
11.	Borron SW, Baud FJ, Mégarbane B, et al. Hydroxocobalamin for severe acute cyanide poisoning by ingestion or inhalation. Am J Emerg Med, 2007, 25(5): 551-558.
12.	Houeto P, Hoffman JR, Imbert M, et al. Relation of blood cyanide to plasma cyanocobalamin concentration after a fixed dose of hydroxocobalamin in cyanide poisoning. Lancet, 1995, 346(8975): 605-608.
13.	Thompson JP, Marrs TC. Hydroxocobalamin in cyanide poisoning. Clin Toxicol (Phila), 2012, 50(10): 875-885.
14.	Way JL. Cyanide intoxication and its mechanism of antagonism. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol, 1984, 24: 451-481.
15.	Isom GE, Way JL. Effects of oxygen on the antagonism of cyanide intoxication: cytochrome oxidase, in vitro. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 1984, 74(1): 57-62.
16.	Baskin SI, Horowitz AM, Nealley EW. The antidotal action of sodium nitrite and sodium thiosulfate against cyanide poisoning. J Clin Pharmacol, 1992, 32(4): 368-375.
17.	Hall AH, Dart R, Bogdan G. Sodium thiosulfate or hydroxocobalamin for the empiric treatment of cyanide poisoning?. Ann Emerg Med, 2007, 49(6): 806-813.
18.	Bebarta VS, Tanen DA, Lairet J, et al. Hydroxocobalamin and sodium thiosulfate versus sodium nitrite and sodium thiosulfate in the treatment of acute cyanide toxicity in a swine (Sus scrofa) model. Ann Emerg Med, 2010, 55(4): 345-351.
19.	Kirk MA, Gerace R, Kulig KW. Cyanide and methemoglobin kinetics in smoke inhalation victims treated with the cyanide antidote kit. Ann Emerg Med, 1993, 22(9): 1413-1418.
20.	Way JL, Gibbon SL, Sheehy M. Cyanide intoxication: protection with oxygen. Science, 1966, 152(3719): 210-211.
21.	Hansen MB, Olsen NV, Hyldegaard O. Combined administration of hyperbaric oxygen and hydroxocobalamin improves cerebral metabolism after acute cyanide poisoning in rats. J Appl Physiol (1985), 2013, 115(9): 1254-1261.
22.	Lawson-Smith P, Olsen NV, Hyldegaard O. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy or hydroxycobalamin attenuates surges in brain interstitial lactate and glucose; and hyperbaric oxygen improves respiratory status in cyanide-intoxicated rats. Undersea Hyperb Med, 2011, 38(4): 223-237.
23.	Curtis LA, Dolan TS, Seibert HE. Are one or two dangerous? Lidocaine and topical anesthetic exposures in children. J Emerg Med, 2009, 37(1): 32-39.
24.	Ferguson AJ, Lavery GG. Deliberate self-poisoning with dapsone. A case report and summary of relevant pharmacology and treatment. Anaesthesia, 1997, 52(4): 359-363.
25.	Edwards RJ, Ujma J. Extreme methaemoglobinaemia secondary to recreational use of amyl nitrite. J Accid Emerg Med, 1995, 12(2): 138-142.
26.	Mullick P, Kumar A, Dayal M, et al. Aniline-induced methaemoglobinaemia in a glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase enzyme deficient patient. Anaesth Intensive Care, 2007, 35(2): 286-288.
27.	McDonagh EM, Bautista JM, Youngster I, et al. PharmGKB summary: methylene blue pathway. Pharmacogenet Genomics, 2013, 23(9): 498-508.
28.	Nekkanti AC, Hazra D, Kumar S, et al. Acquired methemoglobinemia in cases of intentional exposure to agrochemicals: our 4 years experience. Curr Med Issues, 2020, 18(3): 175-178.
29.	Herman MI, Chyka PA, Butler AY, et al. Methylene blue by intraosseous infusion for methemoglobinemia. Ann Emerg Med, 1999, 33(1): 111-113.
30.	Finan A, Keenan P, Donovan FO, et al. Methaemoglobinaemia associated with sodium nitrite in three siblings. BMJ, 1998, 317(7166): 1138-1139.
31.	Chinevere TD, Murray CK, Grant E Jr, et al. Prevalence of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency in U. S. Army personnel. Mil Med, 2006, 171(9): 905-907.
32.	Singh P, Rakesh K, Agarwal R, et al. Therapeutic whole blood exchange in the management of methaemoglobinemia: case series and systematic review of literature. Transfus Med, 2020, 30(3): 231-239.
33.	Bhat P, Sisler I, Collier AB. Exchange transfusion as treatment for rasburicase induced methemoglobinemia in a glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficient patient. Pediatr Blood Cancer, 2008, 51(4): 568.
34.	Perera M, Shihana F, Kularathne K, et al. Acute methaemoglobinaemia after massive nitrobenzene ingestion. BMJ Case Rep, 2009, 2009: bcr07.2008.0515.
35.	Lien YH, Lin YC, Chen RJ. A case report of acquired methemoglobinemia rescued by veno-venous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Medicine (Baltimore), 2021, 100(15): e25522.
36.	Golden PJ, Weinstein R. Treatment of high-risk, refractory acquired methemoglobinemia with automated red blood cell exchange. J Clin Apher, 1998, 13(1): 28-31.
37.	Cho Y, Park SW, Han SK, et al. A case of methemoglobinemia successfully treated with hyperbaric oxygenation monotherapy. J Emerg Med, 2017, 53(5): 685-687.
38.	Lindenmann J, Matzi V, Kaufmann P, et al. Hyperbaric oxygenation in the treatment of life-threatening isobutyl nitrite-induced methemoglobinemia--a case report. Inhal Toxicol, 2006, 18(13): 1047-1049.
39.	Tanen DA, LoVecchio F, Curry SC. Failure of intravenous N-acetylcysteine to reduce methemoglobin produced by sodium nitrite in human volunteers: a randomized controlled trial. Ann Emerg Med, 2000, 35(4): 369-373.
40.	Park SY, Lee KW, Kang TS. High-dose vitamin C management in dapsone-induced methemoglobinemia. Am J Emerg Med, 2014, 32(6): 684.e1-684.e3.
41.	Rino PB, Scolnik D, Fusti?ana A, et al. Ascorbic acid for the treatment of methemoglobinemia: the experience of a large tertiary care pediatric hospital. Am J Ther, 2014, 21(4): 240-243.
42.	Park EJ, Lee M, Min YG. Successful treatment of NO-induced methemoglobinemia with low-dose vitamin C. Clin Toxicol (Phila), 2017, 55(7): 686.
43.	King AM, Aaron CK. Organophosphate and carbamate poisoning. Emerg Med Clin North Am, 2015, 33(1): 133-151.
44.	Bardin PG, Van Eeden SF, Moolman JA, et al. Organophosphate and carbamate poisoning. Arch Intern Med, 1994, 154(13): 1433-1441.
45.	Geller RJ, Singleton KL, Tarantino ML, et al. Nosocomial poisoning associated with emergency department treatment of organophosphate toxicity--Georgia, 2000. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol, 2001, 39(1): 109-111.
46.	Koksal N, Buyukbese MA, Guven A, et al. Organophosphate intoxication as a consequence of mouth-to-mouth breathing from an affected case. Chest, 2002, 122(2): 740-741.
47.	Calvert GM, Barnett M, Mehler LN, et al. Acute pesticide-related illness among emergency responders, 1993-2002. Am J Ind Med, 2006, 49(5): 383-393.
48.	Stacey R, Morfey D, Payne S. Secondary contamination in organophosphate poisoning: analysis of an incident. QJM, 2004, 97(2): 75-80.
49.	Abedin MJ, Sayeed AA, Basher A, et al. Open-label randomized clinical trial of atropine bolus injection versus incremental boluses plus infusion for organophosphate poisoning in Bangladesh. J Med Toxicol, 2012, 8(2): 108-117.
50.	Lotti M. Treatment of acute organophosphate poisoning. Med J Aust, 1991, 154(1): 51-55.
51.	Barker BS, Spampanato J, Mccarren HS, et al. Screening for efficacious anticonvulsants and neuroprotectants in delayed treatment models of organophosphate-induced status epilepticus. Neuroscience, 2020, 425: 280-300.
52.	Shrot S, Ramaty E, Biala Y, et al. Prevention of organophosphate-induced chronic epilepsy by early benzodiazepine treatment. Toxicology, 2014, 323: 19-25.
53.	Eyer P. The role of oximes in the management of organophosphorus pesticide poisoning. Toxicol Rev, 2003, 22(3): 165-190.
54.	Pawar KS, Bhoite RR, Pillay CP, et al. Continuous pralidoxime infusion versus repeated bolus injection to treat organophosphorus pesticide poisoning: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet, 2006, 368(9553): 2136-2141.
55.	Buckley NA, Eddleston M, Li Y, et al. Oximes for acute organophosphate pesticide poisoning. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2011(2): CD005085.
56.	Worek F, Thiermann H, Szinicz L, et al. Kinetic analysis of interactions between human acetylcholinesterase, structurally different organophosphorus compounds and oximes. Biochem Pharmacol, 2004, 68(11): 2237-2248.
57.	Worek F, Eyer P, Aurbek N, et al. Recent advances in evaluation of oxime efficacy in nerve agent poisoning by in vitro analysis. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 2007, 219(2/3): 226-234.
58.	Jokanovi? M, Stojiljkovi? MP. Current understanding of the application of pyridinium oximes as cholinesterase reactivators in treatment of organophosphate poisoning. Eur J Pharmacol, 2006, 553(1/2/3): 10-17.
59.	Pérez Guillermo F, Martinez Pretel CM, Tarín Royo F, et al. Prolonged suxamethonium-induced neuromuscular blockade associated with organophosphate poisoning. Br J Anaesth, 1988, 61(2): 233-236.
60.	Sener EB, Ustun E, Kocamanoglu S, et al. Prolonged apnea following succinylcholine administration in undiagnosed acute organophosphate poisoning. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand, 2002, 46(8): 1046-1048.
61.	Selden BS, Curry SC. Prolonged succinylcholine-induced paralysis in organophosphate insecticide poisoning. Ann Emerg Med, 1987, 16(2): 215-217.
62.	Masson R, Colas V, Parienti JJ, et al. A comparison of survival with and without extracorporeal life support treatment for severe poisoning due to drug intoxication. Resuscitation, 2012, 83(11): 1413-1417.
63.	Duburcq T, Goutay J, Preau S, et al. Venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in severe drug intoxication: a retrospective comparison of survivors and nonsurvivors. ASAIO J, 2022, 68(7): 907-913.
64.	Kato Y, Kuriyama A, Hata R, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for hypokalemia and refractory ventricular fibrillation associated with caffeine intoxication. J Emerg Med, 2020, 58(1): 59-62.
65.	Hermes-Laufer J, Meyer M, Rudiger A, et al. Extracorporeal life support as bridge to recovery in yew poisoning: case reports and literature review. ESC Heart Fail, 2021, 8(1): 705-709.
66.	Labarinas S, Meulmester K, Greene S, et al. Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation after diphenhydramine ingestion. J Med Toxicol, 2018, 14(3): 253-256.
67.	Mu HW, Chen CH, Yang KW, et al. Cerbera manghas poisoning survived by using extracorporeal life support. Clin Toxicol (Phila), 2018, 56(2): 153-154.
68.	Vo KT, Tabas JA, Smollin CG. Alternating ventricular complexes after overdose from an herbal medication. JAMA Intern Med, 2017, 177(8): 1199-1201.
69.	Ikejiri K, Akama Y, Ieki Y, et al. Veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation and targeted temperature management in tricyclic antidepressant-induced cardiac arrest: a case report and literature review. Medicine (Baltimore), 2021, 100(9): e24980.

1. Lavonas EJ, Akpunonu PD, Arens AM, et al. 2023 American Heart Association focused update on the management of patients with cardiac arrest or life-threatening toxicity due to poisoning: an update to the American Heart Association guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Circulation, 2023, 148(16): e149-e184.
2. 向昕杰, 褚莉莉, 姚鵬, 等. 2023 年美國心臟協會中毒所致心臟驟停及心臟危重癥管理指南解讀(一): 神經系統毒性物質中毒的管理. 華西醫學, 2023, 38(11): 1616-1624.
3. 廖登勇, 褚莉莉, 姚鵬, 等. 2023 年美國心臟協會中毒所致心臟驟停及心臟危重癥管理指南解讀(二): 心血管系統藥物中毒的管理. 華西醫學, 2024, 39(11): 1691-1698.
4. Baud FJ, Barriot P, Toffis V, et al. Elevated blood cyanide concentrations in victims of smoke inhalation. N Engl J Med, 1991, 325(25): 1761-1766.
5. Borron SW, Baud FJ, Barriot P, et al. Prospective study of hydroxocobalamin for acute cyanide poisoning in smoke inhalation. Ann Emerg Med, 2007, 49(6): 794-801, 801.e1-801.e2.
6. Hendry-Hofer TB, Ng PC, Witeof AE, et al. A review on ingested cyanide: risks, clinical presentation, diagnostics, and treatment challenges. J Med Toxicol, 2019, 15(2): 128-133.
7. Tshala-Katumbay DD, Ngombe NN, Okitundu D, et al. Cyanide and the human brain: perspectives from a model of food (cassava) poisoning. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 2016, 1378(1): 50-57.
8. Pettersen JC, Cohen SD. The effects of cyanide on brain mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase and respiratory activities. J Appl Toxicol, 1993, 13(1): 9-14.
9. Parker-Cote JL, Rizer J, Vakkalanka JP, et al. Challenges in the diagnosis of acute cyanide poisoning. Clin Toxicol (Phila), 2018, 56(7): 609-617.
10. Petrikovics I, Budai M, Kovacs K, et al. Past, present and future of cyanide antagonism research: from the early remedies to the current therapies. World J Methodol, 2015, 5(2): 88-100.
11. Borron SW, Baud FJ, Mégarbane B, et al. Hydroxocobalamin for severe acute cyanide poisoning by ingestion or inhalation. Am J Emerg Med, 2007, 25(5): 551-558.
12. Houeto P, Hoffman JR, Imbert M, et al. Relation of blood cyanide to plasma cyanocobalamin concentration after a fixed dose of hydroxocobalamin in cyanide poisoning. Lancet, 1995, 346(8975): 605-608.
13. Thompson JP, Marrs TC. Hydroxocobalamin in cyanide poisoning. Clin Toxicol (Phila), 2012, 50(10): 875-885.
14. Way JL. Cyanide intoxication and its mechanism of antagonism. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol, 1984, 24: 451-481.
15. Isom GE, Way JL. Effects of oxygen on the antagonism of cyanide intoxication: cytochrome oxidase, in vitro. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 1984, 74(1): 57-62.
16. Baskin SI, Horowitz AM, Nealley EW. The antidotal action of sodium nitrite and sodium thiosulfate against cyanide poisoning. J Clin Pharmacol, 1992, 32(4): 368-375.
17. Hall AH, Dart R, Bogdan G. Sodium thiosulfate or hydroxocobalamin for the empiric treatment of cyanide poisoning?. Ann Emerg Med, 2007, 49(6): 806-813.
18. Bebarta VS, Tanen DA, Lairet J, et al. Hydroxocobalamin and sodium thiosulfate versus sodium nitrite and sodium thiosulfate in the treatment of acute cyanide toxicity in a swine (Sus scrofa) model. Ann Emerg Med, 2010, 55(4): 345-351.
19. Kirk MA, Gerace R, Kulig KW. Cyanide and methemoglobin kinetics in smoke inhalation victims treated with the cyanide antidote kit. Ann Emerg Med, 1993, 22(9): 1413-1418.
20. Way JL, Gibbon SL, Sheehy M. Cyanide intoxication: protection with oxygen. Science, 1966, 152(3719): 210-211.
21. Hansen MB, Olsen NV, Hyldegaard O. Combined administration of hyperbaric oxygen and hydroxocobalamin improves cerebral metabolism after acute cyanide poisoning in rats. J Appl Physiol (1985), 2013, 115(9): 1254-1261.
22. Lawson-Smith P, Olsen NV, Hyldegaard O. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy or hydroxycobalamin attenuates surges in brain interstitial lactate and glucose; and hyperbaric oxygen improves respiratory status in cyanide-intoxicated rats. Undersea Hyperb Med, 2011, 38(4): 223-237.
23. Curtis LA, Dolan TS, Seibert HE. Are one or two dangerous? Lidocaine and topical anesthetic exposures in children. J Emerg Med, 2009, 37(1): 32-39.
24. Ferguson AJ, Lavery GG. Deliberate self-poisoning with dapsone. A case report and summary of relevant pharmacology and treatment. Anaesthesia, 1997, 52(4): 359-363.
25. Edwards RJ, Ujma J. Extreme methaemoglobinaemia secondary to recreational use of amyl nitrite. J Accid Emerg Med, 1995, 12(2): 138-142.
26. Mullick P, Kumar A, Dayal M, et al. Aniline-induced methaemoglobinaemia in a glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase enzyme deficient patient. Anaesth Intensive Care, 2007, 35(2): 286-288.
27. McDonagh EM, Bautista JM, Youngster I, et al. PharmGKB summary: methylene blue pathway. Pharmacogenet Genomics, 2013, 23(9): 498-508.
28. Nekkanti AC, Hazra D, Kumar S, et al. Acquired methemoglobinemia in cases of intentional exposure to agrochemicals: our 4 years experience. Curr Med Issues, 2020, 18(3): 175-178.
29. Herman MI, Chyka PA, Butler AY, et al. Methylene blue by intraosseous infusion for methemoglobinemia. Ann Emerg Med, 1999, 33(1): 111-113.
30. Finan A, Keenan P, Donovan FO, et al. Methaemoglobinaemia associated with sodium nitrite in three siblings. BMJ, 1998, 317(7166): 1138-1139.
31. Chinevere TD, Murray CK, Grant E Jr, et al. Prevalence of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency in U. S. Army personnel. Mil Med, 2006, 171(9): 905-907.
32. Singh P, Rakesh K, Agarwal R, et al. Therapeutic whole blood exchange in the management of methaemoglobinemia: case series and systematic review of literature. Transfus Med, 2020, 30(3): 231-239.
33. Bhat P, Sisler I, Collier AB. Exchange transfusion as treatment for rasburicase induced methemoglobinemia in a glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficient patient. Pediatr Blood Cancer, 2008, 51(4): 568.
34. Perera M, Shihana F, Kularathne K, et al. Acute methaemoglobinaemia after massive nitrobenzene ingestion. BMJ Case Rep, 2009, 2009: bcr07.2008.0515.
35. Lien YH, Lin YC, Chen RJ. A case report of acquired methemoglobinemia rescued by veno-venous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Medicine (Baltimore), 2021, 100(15): e25522.
36. Golden PJ, Weinstein R. Treatment of high-risk, refractory acquired methemoglobinemia with automated red blood cell exchange. J Clin Apher, 1998, 13(1): 28-31.
37. Cho Y, Park SW, Han SK, et al. A case of methemoglobinemia successfully treated with hyperbaric oxygenation monotherapy. J Emerg Med, 2017, 53(5): 685-687.
38. Lindenmann J, Matzi V, Kaufmann P, et al. Hyperbaric oxygenation in the treatment of life-threatening isobutyl nitrite-induced methemoglobinemia--a case report. Inhal Toxicol, 2006, 18(13): 1047-1049.
39. Tanen DA, LoVecchio F, Curry SC. Failure of intravenous N-acetylcysteine to reduce methemoglobin produced by sodium nitrite in human volunteers: a randomized controlled trial. Ann Emerg Med, 2000, 35(4): 369-373.
40. Park SY, Lee KW, Kang TS. High-dose vitamin C management in dapsone-induced methemoglobinemia. Am J Emerg Med, 2014, 32(6): 684.e1-684.e3.
41. Rino PB, Scolnik D, Fusti?ana A, et al. Ascorbic acid for the treatment of methemoglobinemia: the experience of a large tertiary care pediatric hospital. Am J Ther, 2014, 21(4): 240-243.
42. Park EJ, Lee M, Min YG. Successful treatment of NO-induced methemoglobinemia with low-dose vitamin C. Clin Toxicol (Phila), 2017, 55(7): 686.
43. King AM, Aaron CK. Organophosphate and carbamate poisoning. Emerg Med Clin North Am, 2015, 33(1): 133-151.
44. Bardin PG, Van Eeden SF, Moolman JA, et al. Organophosphate and carbamate poisoning. Arch Intern Med, 1994, 154(13): 1433-1441.
45. Geller RJ, Singleton KL, Tarantino ML, et al. Nosocomial poisoning associated with emergency department treatment of organophosphate toxicity--Georgia, 2000. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol, 2001, 39(1): 109-111.
46. Koksal N, Buyukbese MA, Guven A, et al. Organophosphate intoxication as a consequence of mouth-to-mouth breathing from an affected case. Chest, 2002, 122(2): 740-741.
47. Calvert GM, Barnett M, Mehler LN, et al. Acute pesticide-related illness among emergency responders, 1993-2002. Am J Ind Med, 2006, 49(5): 383-393.
48. Stacey R, Morfey D, Payne S. Secondary contamination in organophosphate poisoning: analysis of an incident. QJM, 2004, 97(2): 75-80.
49. Abedin MJ, Sayeed AA, Basher A, et al. Open-label randomized clinical trial of atropine bolus injection versus incremental boluses plus infusion for organophosphate poisoning in Bangladesh. J Med Toxicol, 2012, 8(2): 108-117.
50. Lotti M. Treatment of acute organophosphate poisoning. Med J Aust, 1991, 154(1): 51-55.
51. Barker BS, Spampanato J, Mccarren HS, et al. Screening for efficacious anticonvulsants and neuroprotectants in delayed treatment models of organophosphate-induced status epilepticus. Neuroscience, 2020, 425: 280-300.
52. Shrot S, Ramaty E, Biala Y, et al. Prevention of organophosphate-induced chronic epilepsy by early benzodiazepine treatment. Toxicology, 2014, 323: 19-25.
53. Eyer P. The role of oximes in the management of organophosphorus pesticide poisoning. Toxicol Rev, 2003, 22(3): 165-190.
54. Pawar KS, Bhoite RR, Pillay CP, et al. Continuous pralidoxime infusion versus repeated bolus injection to treat organophosphorus pesticide poisoning: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet, 2006, 368(9553): 2136-2141.
55. Buckley NA, Eddleston M, Li Y, et al. Oximes for acute organophosphate pesticide poisoning. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2011(2): CD005085.
56. Worek F, Thiermann H, Szinicz L, et al. Kinetic analysis of interactions between human acetylcholinesterase, structurally different organophosphorus compounds and oximes. Biochem Pharmacol, 2004, 68(11): 2237-2248.
57. Worek F, Eyer P, Aurbek N, et al. Recent advances in evaluation of oxime efficacy in nerve agent poisoning by in vitro analysis. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 2007, 219(2/3): 226-234.
58. Jokanovi? M, Stojiljkovi? MP. Current understanding of the application of pyridinium oximes as cholinesterase reactivators in treatment of organophosphate poisoning. Eur J Pharmacol, 2006, 553(1/2/3): 10-17.
59. Pérez Guillermo F, Martinez Pretel CM, Tarín Royo F, et al. Prolonged suxamethonium-induced neuromuscular blockade associated with organophosphate poisoning. Br J Anaesth, 1988, 61(2): 233-236.
60. Sener EB, Ustun E, Kocamanoglu S, et al. Prolonged apnea following succinylcholine administration in undiagnosed acute organophosphate poisoning. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand, 2002, 46(8): 1046-1048.
61. Selden BS, Curry SC. Prolonged succinylcholine-induced paralysis in organophosphate insecticide poisoning. Ann Emerg Med, 1987, 16(2): 215-217.
62. Masson R, Colas V, Parienti JJ, et al. A comparison of survival with and without extracorporeal life support treatment for severe poisoning due to drug intoxication. Resuscitation, 2012, 83(11): 1413-1417.
63. Duburcq T, Goutay J, Preau S, et al. Venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in severe drug intoxication: a retrospective comparison of survivors and nonsurvivors. ASAIO J, 2022, 68(7): 907-913.
64. Kato Y, Kuriyama A, Hata R, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for hypokalemia and refractory ventricular fibrillation associated with caffeine intoxication. J Emerg Med, 2020, 58(1): 59-62.
65. Hermes-Laufer J, Meyer M, Rudiger A, et al. Extracorporeal life support as bridge to recovery in yew poisoning: case reports and literature review. ESC Heart Fail, 2021, 8(1): 705-709.
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West China Medical Journal

Interpretation of 2023 American Heart Association guideline for the management of patients with cardiac arrest or life-threatening toxicity due to poisoning (Ⅲ): cyanide and other poisonings, and the management of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation

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